أي نظام سياسي وأية صيغة للبنان؟
مداخلة ضمن أعمال المؤتمر السنوي الثالث لمركز دراسات جامعة الحكمة:أي قانون انتخابي للبنان،،بيروت،27-28 شباط 2003
د. سعود المولى
الحديث عن الصيغة اللبنانية هو حديث عن النظام السياسي الأصلح والأفضل ( أو الأنسب) لبلد هو لبنان . وهذا يعني إعترافا" أولا" بالخصوصية ، أي بما أفرزته التجربة العيانية الملموسة خلال القرن العشرين ، ودعوة ثانيا" الى إجتراح إطار نظري مرجعي لقراءة وفهم وتحليل وتطوير النظام اللبناني. والحقيقة التي ينبغي الانطلاق منها هنا هي انه ليس هناك معرفة علمية مسبقة ناجزة تفسيرية واستنتاجية حول النظام السياسي اللبناني .. وبالتالي فإن هذا النظام لا يخضع او لا يمكن أن يُدرج ضمن أي تصنيف علموي شائع عزيز على قلوب المثقفين اللبنانيين المتبعين للتقاليد الغربية في علم السياسة وعلم الاجتماع السياسي.
لقد حاول هؤلاء المثقفين ولعقود وعقود إسقاط الوصفات والتحاليل الجاهزة ، القَبلية ، والمجرَّبة ، وفق نماذج معيارية يبقى المثال الفرنسي اليعقوبي Jacobin ملهمها ، وتبقى العلوم الاجتماعية والسياسية الغربية للنصف الاول من القرن العشرين إطارها المرجعي .. ولم ينتبه المثقفون المشتغلون على هذه المسألة الى التطورات الفكرية والنظرية والى ما قدمته التجربة نفسها من دروس في الغرب والشرق على السواء ، فجمدوا عند مقولات ومنقولات ومقبولات تنتمي الى مدارس غربية عفى عليها الزمن في بلد المنشأ نفسه..
وقد لاحظ عدد من علماء الاجتماع والسياسة ومن المفكرين المجددين في لبنان والعالم العربي، ممن بحثوا وحللوا هذا الموضوع بأن العلوم الاجتماعية والسياسية التي نشأت في مجتمعات غربية متجانسة نسبياً عملت على تعميم مفهوم الدولة – الامة كإطار معياري ناظم للرؤية العامة ويحظى بتوافق شامل .. هذا الى جانب تركيزها في مرحلة معينة على ” المسألة الاجتماعية “ كمشكلة مجتمعية رئيسية ( ربما بتأثير الفكر الماركسي المتعاظم القوة في الخمسينيات والستينيات من القرن الماضي) . وأدى الامر بالتالي الى تهميش الاهتمام الغربي لمشكلات الدول التعددية في اوروبا نفسها ( الشرقية ، والوسطى والجنوبية الشرقية ) ولمشكلات الدول الوطنية حديثة الولادة في آسيا وافريقيا وخصوصا" في المجال العربي والاسلامي .
وأذكر هنا ان المثقفين العرب لم يهتموا ( الا في النادر) لكتابات بنغسين وكلكجاي 1 حول الاسلام في الاتحاد السوفياتي ، ولا لكتابات هيلين كاريردنكوس2 حول الامبراطورية السوفياتية، الى ان انهار المارد السوفياتي وتفككت المنظومة الاشتراكية. هذا في حين ان الاهتمام الغربي ( والاميركي منه تحديدا") بدول شرق اوروبا كان من طبيعة أمنية مخابراتية أكثر منه بحثا" عن معرفة علمية . وأذكر أيضا" ان المثقفين العرب تعاملوا مع انتاج معرفة علمية حول مجتمعاتهم ودولهم ( الا في النادر) على أساس معيارية النموذج الغربي الشائع )وهو بالطبع لم يكن الوحيد) وعلى قاعدة إسقاطه ومحاولة إيجاد شروطه من خلال مفاهيم التحديث والتنمية والاندماج السياسي ( ناهيك عن شعارات الاشتراكية والوحدة والحرية) وتقديسا" طوطميا" لفاعلية الافكار والمفاهيم المسقَطة .. ويقول الباحث الالماني ثيودور هانف ” بأنه كثر الكلام في تلك المرحلة فيما يتعلق باوروبا عن الشعوب والامم والجنسيات والاقليات القومية ، وبالنسبة لافريقيا او آسيا تركزّ الحديث على القبائل وخصائصها . ولكن من ناحية اخرى استُخدمت بعض التعابير على نحو محقّر. فالتضامن الاثني أصبح قبلية ، والتكاتف الاقليمي او المحلي انعزالا"، والتماثل مع جماعة دينية اعتبر نزعة طائفية او تعصبية ... فقد أشاراختيار مثل هذه التعابير الى مفاهيم معيارية. فبين الدولة والامة من جهة وقد أعطيا مفهوما" واحدا" ، والفرد من جهة اخرى ، لم يبق أي مكان للوحدة الاجتماعية الوسيطة“3.
لا بل ان الاتجاه الشائع والسائد حتى العام 1975 كان يُصنّف الوحدات الاجتماعية الوسيطة (العائلة، العشيرة، القرية، المحلة، الطائفة... ) كعقبات في وجه التنمية والتحديث ينبغي القضاء عليها.. وأذكر اننا لم نكتشف مقولة العصبية ومقدمة ابن خلدون الا بعد انتقالها الينا مترجمة عبر إيف لاكوست وفنسان مونتاي4 وغيرهما، وتحت وطأة أتون الحرب الاهلية في لبنان . فلقد كان الفكر السياسي العربي واللبناني مستقيلا" من جهة ومقتنعا" من جهة اخرى بشمولية نموذج التنمية والتحديث الغربي فكان يكرر بالتالي مقولات ماركس وانجلز5 حول المسألة الشرقية وحول الهند والجزائر ، حين قررا بأن التجمعات (المجتمعات) التقليدية هي عائق أمام تطور الرأسمالية ينبغي إزالتها بالقوة (العنف قابلة التاريخ) وان تيار الثورة البروليتارية العالمية لا بد ان يكتسح كل المعوقات.. ولم يكن الماركسيون وحدهم من حمل هكذا افكار . فقد تأثر الليبراليون العرب واللبنانيون بنموذج الثورة الفرنسية والجمهورية الثالثة تحديدا" ، ناهيك عن التاثر بتيارات الفلسفة الالمانية القومية الرومانسية .. والبعض حمل فكرة ماكس فيبر عن تطور المجتمعات التقليدية نحو العصرنة عبر عملية ”عقلنة“ ، وصفها فرديناند تونينس بالانتقال من الجماعة الى المجتمع وعلى اعتبارها الطريق لنشوء دولة قومية موحّدة 6 .. هذا بالاضافة الى مجمل تراث الفكر الوضعي اليميني في العلوم الاجتماعية منذ اوغست كونت واميل دوركهايم 7 .
وهكذا وجدنا أنفسنا في لبنان نتحدث عن الانصهار والدمج ، وعن الدولة القوية الواحدة الموحّدة ، وعن العلمنة ، هذا في حين اننا كنا نقول في الآن نفسه بأن لبنان هو كيان اصطنعه الاستعمار الغربي بعد سايس- بيكو وانه لا يمكن ان يكون امة ، ولا يكوّن شعبا" ، وانه ينبغي بالتالي إزالته أو نقض سيادته واستقلاله كخطوة تقدمية على طريق الدولة القومية الواحدة الموحّدة مهما كان لونها او نوعها ( سورية ، عربية ، أم إسلامية) .. وكان بعضنا من جهة اخرى يقول بأن الطوائف هي كيانات إثنية تامة الوجود الامر الذي يعني بالتالي تحقيق ذاتها عبر الاستقلال أكان استقلالا" سياسيا" ، كما في الدعوة الى وطن قومي مسيحي ، أم
استقلالا" ثقافيا" كما في دولة حزب الله على حد وصف وضّاح شرارة 8 . وهكذا استقامت تحت سقف واحد دعوات الى الصهر والدمج في دولة قوية ، والى التفكيك والتذويب في وحدة أوسع وأشمل ، والى الخصوصية الثقافية الدينية في جماعات مستقلة في مناطق تواجدها .. وهذا طبعا" من عجائب الزمان .. ولبنان ..
والحقيقة ان ما حكم الفكر السياسي اللبناني والعربي هو واقع تصوّري أصبح مقياسا" للعمل والسلوك ، على حد تعبير هانف 9 ، أو هو انسلاب ثقافي وهَوَس بالتصنيف العلموي الشائع على حد تشخيص مسرّة10 ، وفي الحالتين فقد نتج عن ذلك مأزق كبير في محاولة تكييف النظام السياسي اللبناني مع الأصناف المعروفة عالميا" لكي يصبح حديثا" وفعالا".. وأصبح التصّور المسقَط من خارج مكاني وزماني ، ومن خارج نظري ومعرفي ، هو المبدأ السائد بحيث انه صار يجسّد ” فهما" علمانيا" تقدميا"“ دون ان يؤمّن بالضرورة ( بل ولعل العكس كان هو الصحيح) معرفة علمية أكيدة أو تشخيصا" دقيقا" او تصنيفا" استنتاجيا" واقعيا" ، يسمح بعد المعرفة بابتداع شروط التغيير والتطوير 11 .
أما نحن ، فاننا كنا وما زلنا ، مع غيرنا ، نقول بأن أية صيغة لنظام سياسي ينبغي ان تكون تعبيرا" عن حاجات المجتمع وعن ضرورات اشتغال النظام وتأمينه الحد المطلوب من الوحدة والتوازن ومن العدالة والكرامة ومن الحرية والديمقراطية ، للجميع وبين الجميع . اننا هنا نقول بعبارة علمانية بأن السبت خلق لأجل الانسان وليس الانسان لخدمة السبت .. وبالتالي فانه لم يعد جائزا" في مطلع الالفية الثالثة ، وبعد كل ما شهدناه وشهده العالم من تطورات وتحوّلات ، تحليل وتفسير النظام السياسي اللبناني استنادا" الى النظام الفرنسي للجمهورية الثالثة ، أو بصورة أعمّ الى الانظمة البرلمانية على الطراز البريطاني.. ولم يعد جائزا" أيضا" ذمّ النظام اللبناني كونه لا ينتمي الى فئات او أصناف من التصنيف شائعة ومتداولة، او اعتباره شاذا" ينطوي على مغالطة تاريخية، او غير حديث 12 .. في الوقت الذي يتجه فيه المجتمع العلمي أكثر فأكثر ” نحو الاكتشاف من جديد ولو في وقت متأخر لدولة متعددة الفئات او الشعوب عبر علم الاجتماع الحديث“ 13.... ولا ينبغي ان نخضع للارهاب الفكري الذي يمنع الخوض في هكذا نقاش خوفا" من استخدام كلمة فدرالية.. فالمطلوب بالضبط هنا هو الاعتراف اولا" بأنه ليس صحيحا" ان لبنان هو مثل أي بلد آخر ، وان طريقة بناء نظامه السياسي هي نفسها طريقة بناء أي نظام سياسي عالمي او عربي آخر .. والاعتراف ثانيا" بانه ليس عيبا" ولا محرما" القول والقبول بالتنوع الثقافي والتعدد الطائفي لا بل ان المطلوب اكثر من ذلك اي الاعتراف بان هذا التنوع والتعدد هو ثروة انسانية ونوافذ حضارية على العالم، على حد تعبير الامام موسى الصدر.. والمطلوب ثالثا" الاعتراف بانه ليس عيبا" او محرما" القول والقبول بالتسوية، كمعطى انساني حضاري للاوطان والدول...
بين التعددية والمركزية
وهنا تعود بي الذاكرة الى السجال الذي اُثير عقب صدور” النداء الاخير“ للسينودوس( كانون الاول 1995) والذي تضمن دعوة الى الديمقراطية التوافقية وكلاما" عن التعددية الثقافية.. ففي حمأة السجال الحامي الذي استهدف تكفير وتخوين فئة من اللبنانيين ، ضاع الحوار الهادئ الرصين حول هذه القضايا وتحولت بالتالي الى تابو- محرم لا يقاربه أحد خوف التشهير فالتكفير.. والحقيقة التي ينبغي قولها هنا هي ان الامام شمس الدين رفض معنى التقسيم في فكرة التعددية الثقافية ، ومعنى شلل الدولة في فكرة التوافقية ، تماما" كما رفض معنى المجانسة والاحادية والصهر في دعوات الوحدة والتوحيد والدولة القوية ، دون ان يعني ذلك رفضه للتعددية الثقافية أو للديمقراطية التوافقية في لبنان وهو ما دلت عليه كتاباته وخطبه وتصريحاته 14 . وينبغي إعادة الحوار حول المسألة عبر إعادة وضعها في إطارها السليم والصحيح . ذلك ان عبارة ” ثقافية “ واستخدامها في ” تعددية ثقافية “ ، قد تكون محمّلة بالشحنة الرومانسية الالمانية الهردرية ( نسبة الى هردر) والتي انتقلت الى الانتروبولوجيا المعاصرة (وخصوصا" الانكلوساكسونية) التي اعتبرت” الثقافة كشكل أو نمط للحياة، وككل متكامل يجسّده كل شعب“ . فاعتبرت بالتالي الحدود الثقافية حدودا" إثنية ، الامر الذي سمح بالقول بوجود إثنيات متعددة في لبنان بناء على اعتبار الطوائف وحدات ثقافية انثروبولوجيا .
وقد ماهى الاب سليم عبو في محاضرة له بتاريخ 8 آذار 1985 بين الطوائف والاثنيات ودعا الى الفدرالية على هذا الاساس (15).. وفي مقالة له في العام 1978 وصف مايكل هدسون الطوائف اللبنانية بانها جماعات إثنية-دينية (16).. وقد ناقش نواف سلام هذه الادعاءات ( في مقالته حول مفهوم الطائفة والإثنية )17.....
ان التفسير الثقافوي- الانتروبولوجي للتعددية كان مصدره على الدوام الاقليات الدينية في الشرق ، ومن هنا خطورته وبالتالي خطورة تحوله الى دعوة سياسية – انفصالية معادية للمحيط العربي والاسلامي
(( في مطلع القرن العشرين راجت الدعوة الى وطن قومي مسيحي في لبنان أو وطن قومي قبطي في صعيد مصر أو الى انفصال البربر في الجزائر أو المغرب)) . والحقيقة ان الخطر الآخر جاء ويأتي من اولئك الذين يرفضون وينكرون واقع التعدد الثقافي والديني وضرورة الحل الديمقراطي التوافقي ، فيوصلون مجتمعاتهم تحت شعار الوحدة والقومية الى التمزق والصراعات الدموية ويفتحون الباب للتدخل الاجنبي وللتقسيم.. والاختلاف في النظرة الى الوحدة والانصهار ينبع أيضا" من مفهوم المجانسة ، أو تحويل الآخر وتطبيعه وفرض نمط محدد احادي واحدي نقول عنه انه موحِّد وموحَّد في حين انه بذرة التفتيت وغطاء لأبشع أنواع الاستئثار الفئوي.. وإضافة الى الجذر القومي الالماني (هردر وفخته وحتى هيغل) فان الماركسية هي أيضا" ساهمت في تقديس تلك الدعوة الى المجانسة أو الصهر عبر تعريفها للتعدد الثقافي أو اللغوي أو الديني على انه ظاهرة انتقالية عارضة أو ظاهرة غير أولية وغير ثابتة إطلاقا"، وتأكيدها على ان هذه الظواهر معرّضة سريعا" وبقوة للتغيير.. فهي بنية فوقية تكون انعكاسا" للبنية التحتية وبالتالي فان مصيرها هو التطور الحتمي والتغيير الثوري مع حصول التطور والتغيير في البنية التحتية (الاقتصادية الاجتماعية) التي تحملها. وقد ذهب الكثير من الماركسيين الى اعتبار الخصائص الثقافية (الدين مثالا") وسيلة تستخدمها الطبقات المستَغَّلة لإخفاء التناقض وتمويه الصراع الطبقي في المجتمع، أو كإدراك خاطئ ومشوّه (وعي زائف) يمنع البشر من فهم مصالحهم الاقتصادية ومن التوحّد بالتالي ضد الرأسمالية.. ولم نعدم في لبنان أمثلة على هذا التفسير لعل أبرزها ما كان يقدّمه الكاتب الشيوعي حسن حمدان ( مهدي عامل) 18 وفي مقابل المدرسة الماركسية اكّدت المدرسة الانتروبولوجية ( مالينوفسكي- بنديكت- هيلز- غيرتز) على أولوية الروابط الدينية والإثنية والقرابية التي تتميّز بحال من التضامن المكثف والمتكامل والتأثير الفاعل في سلوك الناس وذلك عبر القوة الإكراهية، والمحرّمات، وايضا" عبر التجذّر في التاريخ والتوارث عبر التربية العائلية والتثبيت عبر المفاهيم العقدية والدينية. وبهذا المعنى فان تلك الروابط تصير ثوابت واقعية قائمة بحد ذاتها في التاريخ أو متكوّنة عبر التاريخ، أي انها تصير جواهر ثابتة. وهذا ما حدا بكليفورد غيرتزClifford Geertz للحديث عن ”الهوية الاساسية“ للمجموعة19، ووالكر كونرWalker Conner للقول برابط حدسي اكثر قوة وعمقا" من الروابط التي تشّد المجموعة الى بنية دولة قائمة وشرعية يجد الناس ذواتهم فيها20 .
أما بيّار فان دن برغ Pierre L.Van Den Berghe فقد قال بان هذه المجموعات ”هي امتداد لعبارة القرابة وتتميّز اكثر بأولويتها وشموليتها عن كل التجمعات القائمة على المصالح المجزأة مثل الجمعيات المهنية والاتحادات العمالية والاحزاب السياسية أو بشكل اوسع الطبقية . فالعلاقة بين الطبقة من جهة والاثنية والعرق من جهة اخرى معقّدة لأن درجة الترابط بين خطوط التباعد والانشقاق المختلفة أساسا" تتنوع من حالة الى اخرى . ولكن وبصورة عامة يستطيع الناس ان ينتظموا بسهولة عبر الروابط الإثنية والعرقية اكثر بكثير من الاعتماد على الروابط الطبقية“ 21 .
وكان راج في مطلع الحرب الاهلية اللبنانية مصطلح” الطبقة/الطائفة“ التي استخدمها الشيوعي اللبناني جورج حاوي كما الماركسي الفلسطيني منير شفيق في إشارة الى ما أسماه القومي العربي اليساري منح الصلح ”المارونية السياسية“ ، في محاولة تنظيرية دمّجت بين مفهوم الجماعة الدينية- الثقافية ( او الإثنية) وبين مفهوم الطبقة. ورغم ان الإثنية او الجماعة الخصوصية (الدينية-الثقافية) تُلازم وتُحتّم جزئيا" موقع الطبقة ، الا ان الطبقة تتكون حتما" من عدد من العوامل غير الإثنية- الدينية- الثقافية.. وبالمقابل فانه توجد عوامل او جوانب عديدة للجماعات الثقافية – الدينية- الإثنية مستقلة عن علاقتها بالسلطة والانتاج الذي يشكل نظام الطبقة .
وفي التسعينات من القرن العشرين حاول الماركسيون تناول موضوع العلاقة بين مفهوم الإثنية، او الجماعة الدينية-الثقافية من جهة، ومفهوم الطبقة من جهة أخرى ، من خلال استعادة وتداول مفهوم وفكرة المجتمع المدني، كإطار لتحديد العلاقة بين المجتمع والدولة، باعتبار المجتمع المدني هو الهيئات الاجتماعية الوسيطة التي تحمل رموز ومعاني تنوع الانتماءات الدينية والثقافية والإثنية وغيرها، لدى الفرد والجماعة. ولن ندخل هنا في شرح ظاهرة إعادة نبش فكرة ومفهوم المجتمع المدني على يد المثقفين الاميركيين بعد سقوط الاتحاد السوفياتي وكيفية تلقفها لدى المثقفين الماركسيين العرب الخارجين من السياسة22. الا ان ما نوّد تأكيده هنا هو عدم قدرة فكرة ومفهوم المجتمع المدني على تقديم إطار مرجعي لتفسير وتحليل النظام السياسي في الدول التعددية اذ ان المفهوم والفكرة هما نتاج الفكرالقومي السياسي المرتبط بنموذج الدولة- الامة في الغرب وذلك منذ هوبز وروسو وحتى هيغل وماركس.. أما قيمة المحاولات الماركسية الجديدة فتعود الى جهدها في ربط نفسها بتراث غرامشي في هذا المجال. الأمر الذي سمح بإعادة الاعتبار الى غرامشي نفسه بعد ان كان التيار السوفياتي السائد في الاحزاب الشيوعية يحرّم مجرد ذكر اسمه، تماما" كما نشهد اليوم عودة الماركسيين السوفيات العرب الى الاشادة بالتجربة الصينية وبالماوية بعد ان كانوا ولعقود يعتبرونها حليفة الامبريالية الاميركية..
وبالعودة الى موضوعة استعادة فكرة ومفهوم المجتمع المدني بناء" على تراث غرامشي (الايطالي قلبا" وقالبا") فان ما ينبغي توكيده هنا هو ان غرامشي حاول مبكرا" الخلاص من النظرة الماركسية الضيّقة التي لم تكن ترى في المجتمع المدني سوى ”البنية الاجتماعية“ التي هي مسرح الصراع الطبقي أولا" والاساس الذي يرتكز عليه كل تطوّر اجتماعي ثانيا".. وحاول أيضا" عدم الوقوع في النظرة الهيغلية المتعالية هي الاخرى على المجتمع ومكوّناته والتي جعلت المجتمع المدني هو الحيّز الاجتماعي والاخلاقي الواقع بين الاسرة والدولة ووجوده يفترض طبعا" الدولة المعبّرة عن إرادة عليا والمجسِّدة سياسيا" وتاريخيا" لمعقولية الفكرة المطلقة.. فالمجتمع المدني عند هيغل يصبح وسيطا" بين الفرد والدولة كمؤسسات وتجمعات يفرزها المجتمع ويتم من خلالها تنظيم العلاقات بين أفراد المجتمع.. وقد رأى غرامشي بأن المجتمع المدني هو من جهة بناء فوقي (الى جانب المجتمع السياسي أو الدولة) ينطوي على وظيفة الهيمنة hégémonie ، وهو من جهة اخرى فضاء للتنافس الايديولوجي (باعتباره يحتوي على العلاقات الثقافية- الايديولوجية ويضم كل النشاط الروحي- العقلي) في حين يكون المجتمع السياسي فضاء للسيطرة السياسية بواسطة القوة Pouvoir. ووظيفة الهيمنة التي للمجتمع المدني هي وظيفة توجيهية للسلطة الرمزية التي تمارس بواسطة التنظيمات التي تدعي انها خاصة مثل دور العبادة والنقابات والمدارس23.. وقد دعا غرامشي فيما دعا اليه الى انشاء كتلة تاريخية ، سياسية اقتصادية ، متناسقة ، جديدة ، بدون تناقضات داخلية موضحا" ان سيادة أية طبقة اجتماعية او تحالف طبقي تستوجب هيمنتها أي الارادة الثقافية- الاخلاقية والقيادة لإيجاد سياسة ثقافية تنسّق وتوحّد مواقف الفئات والطبقات الاجتماعية كمقدمة لا بد منها لتحقيق السيادة السياسية 24 .غير ان الفصل المنهجي عند غرامشي بين مجتمع مدني ومجتمع سياسي لا يشير الى انقسام وظيفي في كلا المجتمعين . فالواقع الفعلي هو ان المجتمع السياسي والمدني متطابقان وما يفعله غرامشي هو التمييز داخل الدولة- الامة بين لحظة القوة / السلطة التي تمتلكها الدولة ( المجتمع السياسي) وبين لحظة التسوية التي هي لحظة المجتمع المدني .
فالدولة/ المجتمع السياسي ليست فقط أداة عنف وسيطرة بالقوة وانما هي من خلال لحظة التسوية/ المجتمع المدني أداة الهيمنة الايديولوجية الخفية على المجتمع عبر تحكّمها بكل المؤسسات ( المدرسة، الجامعة، النقابة، الاحزاب، الكنيسة والدين..).. وحسب غرامشي فان الكنيسة لعبت دور الفئة المثقفة للطبقة الحاكمة فكانت هي ”المثقف العضوي“ على حد تعبيره قبل ان تنحدر وظيفتها هذه وتعود الى ايديولوجية جديدة للطبقة الحاكمة . والنقطة المثيرة في تشخيص غرامشي لوظيفة الهيمنة الايديولوجية تركيزه على لحظة التسوية باعتبارها لحظة المجتمع المدني وهذا ما يمكن الافادة منه في مقاربة مختلفة لمعنى التسوية في النظام التوافقي على النمط اللبناني .
ولعل النقطة الاساسية في تبني الماركسيين الجدد لفكرة المجتمع المدني تتعلق بكون المجتمع المدني يظهر باعتباره رابطة طوعية اختيارية يدخلها الافراد بمحض إرادتهم ايمانا" منهم بانها قادرة على تلبية مصالحهم والتعبير عنهم. ويتكوّن المجتمع المدني بهذا المعنى من المؤسسات الانتاجية والطبقات الاجتماعية والمؤسسات التعليمية والدينية والنقابات العمالية والروابط والاحزاب السياسية والنوادي الثقافية والاجتماعية..
ولقد التقط الليبرالي الجديد آبنر كوهن Abner Cohen هذا المعنى للحديث عن عامل أو عنصر التنافس بين ”المجموعات“ في سبيل السيطرة على، أو مراقبة الموارد 25 ، خاصة تلك التي تشرف عليها الهيئات الرسمية. وهو اعتبر ان هذه المجموعات الاقتصادية أو الثقافية لا تتكوّن وفق معايير موضوعية وانما وفق إرادات ذاتية اذ يستطيع الاشخاص الاختيار بين أشكال الهوية الاقتصادية والثقافية كما تستطيع أكثر مجموعات المصالح المختلفة العمل في مجال المنافسة السياسية .. ويكفي ان يُحدد اُناس ما ان الجماعات الثقافية او الاقتصادية (او الدينية اوغيرها) هي هنا وحسب هذا الفهم ذات طابع طوعي محض ، وهذا عكس النظرة الماركسية او الاقتصادية حول اولوية العناصر الاقتصادية الموضوعية ودور الحتمية التاريخية في تكوّن الجماعات وتطورها..
وكان فان دان بيرغ اكّد على وجوب تضافرعوامل ذاتية وموضوعية لقيام جماعات أثنية
( ثقافية) . فالعنصر الذاتي هو مفهوم وادراك للتمييز بين ( هم ) و ( نحن ) ، وهو ضروري لتكوين الجماعة . لكن هذه المفاهيم الذاتية لا تنمو عشوائيا" بل هي تتبلور حول مجموعة من الخصائص الموضوعية التي تتحول الى مؤشرات للانصهار او للرفض . وحسب فان دان بيرغ فان الميزة الدائمة والمشتركة بين الجماعات الإثنية- الثقافية هو اصلها الطبيعي : إذ يولد المرء فيها وينمو بين افرادها ويتزوج داخلها ويعيش ضمن عائلاتها . وهذا ما يميّز الجماعة المحددة عن غيرها من الجماعات التي تشارك في عملية التنافس السياسي ذاتها . فالاصل المشترك الواقعي أو الصوَري يساهم في توسيع دائرة العائلة وفي بث شعور الاخوة بين الجماعة بكاملها26 .. وقد خالف فان دان بيرغ هنا مقولة ماكس فيبر الذي شدّد على معنى ان ”معيارا" مميزا" يؤدي طبيعيا" الى تحديد جماعة أو طائفة ، فقط عندما تشعر ذاتيا" بأن لها معالم مشتركة . وحسب فيبر فان الجماعات القائمة على الاصل هي غالبا" ذات طبيعة خيالية ، وان الادراك الحسيّ بالانتماء الى جماعة يتأتى عادة بصورة اولية عبر مصير سياسي مشترك وليس بصورة اولية بفعل الاصل“ 27 .
وهكذا فان التمييز الذي أقامه كارل ماركس بين الطبقة بذاتها والطبقة لذاتها28، وذلك الذي أقامه ابن خلدون بين النسب كأمر وهمي ، وبين العصبية 29 ، أو التمييز بين الامة الموضوعية - الثقافية والامة السياسية- الذاتية 30، هو ما يُشير اليه ماكس فيبر بادخاله عامل الشعور الذاتي بالمعالم المشتركة والمصير السياسي المشترك لتحديد جماعة أو طائفة ما .. وهو بالتالي تمييز بين جماعات ثقافية بذاتها وجماعات ثقافية لذاتها .. الاولى موضوعية والثانية تنبعث من الشعور بالوعي الذاتي ..
ولعل عبارة جماعات او مجموعات إثنية العزيزة على قلوب الدراسات الانتروبولوجية (وخصوصا" الانكلوساكسونية) لا تكفي للتعبير عن ”الجماعات لذاتها“ ، أكانت دينية ام ثفافية ام إثنية .. وعبارة طائفة أوضح وأفصح وهي تعني جماعة شعبية أو دينية أو ثفافية أو لغوية تتمتع بوعي وبادراك ذاتي بانها جماعة لذاتها (فؤاد اسحق الخوري ، أحمد بيضون ، نواف سلام ، ثيودور هانف ، وغيرهم) 31 ... وحسب بيار روندو فقد حددت محكمة العدل الدولية بتاريخ 31 تموز 1930 الطائفة بما يلي : ” معيار مفهوم الطائفة وجود مجموعة من الاشخاص تعيش في بلد أو في منطقة معينة تتميز بعامل العرق او الدين او اللغة او التقاليد الخاصة بها ، والتي تتّحد بشعور من التضامن بهدف الخفاظ على تقاليدها وصيانة طقوسها وتأمين التعليم والتربية لأولادها وفقا" لخصائص عرقها وللتعاون والتضامن المتبادلين“ 32 .
بين التعدد والتوافق :
وفي بلد متعدد الطوائف كلبنان ، يكون السؤال الدائم حول النظام السياسي الأمثل أو الأنسب الذي يحقق الاستقرار والاستمرار ويضمن الامن والامان ويكفل تحقيق الذات والازدهار للجميع .
وفي الدول التعددية هذه غالبا" ما يدور الحوار والصراع حول ماهية المجتمع والدولة والكيان ، وحول الانتماء والهوية ، وحول المعنى والدور . وقد عرف التاريخ السياسي الحديث بروز ثلاثة اتجاهات إيديولوجية 33 :
الاتجاه اليعقوبي الراديكالي الداعي الى ”المساواة الثقافية“ أي الى القضاء على الاختلافات والتنوّعات تحقيقا" لمبدأ وحدة الجمهورية وسلطتها المركزية .. والمثال الفرنسي اليعقوبي حاضر أمامنا حيث وضع اليعاقبة لغة واحدة محررة من أية خصوصية ونظاما" تعليميا" موحدا" يقضي على لغات الاقليات او لهجاتها وعملوا على القضاء على كل ما يقف في طريق الوحدة السياسية والثقافية عبر الارهاب الثوري لبناء جمهورية واحدة موحّدة وعبر العمل الارادوي ونشاط الدولة.. وقد استوحى العالم الثالث هذه الايديولوجيا تحت شعار بناء الامة والحقيقة القومية الاجتماعية ومحاربة القبلية والعشائرية والطائفية ..
ومقابل ذلك تنشأ ايديولوجيا تعبئة الهويات استنادا" الى الأصل الاثني- الاقوامي أو الى اللغة أو الدين أو التاريخ أو الثقافة والدعوة الى الخصوصية والتمايز والى الانفصال أو الاستقلال الذاتي داخل الدولة الواحدة .. ومن الغريب ان نجد في لبنان قوى سياسة تجمع بين الايديولوجيتين اي بين جمهورية اليعاقبة وبين خصوصية وتمايز من موقع طائفي او فئوي يؤسس لخطابه وسلطته تحت سقف الدولة الواحدة التي يريدها مركزية موحَّدة صاهرة تقمع المخالفين والمختلفين .. ويكفينا نموذج حزب الله الشيعي أو الحزب الاشتراكي الدرزي أو الحزب القومي السوري أو حركة أمل أو حزب البعث ، أو حزب الكتائب أو الكتلة الوطنية أو غيرها..
أما الاتجاه الثالث فهو المسمى بالوطنية التوفيقية 34 اذ يدعو الى التوافق ضمن دولة- أمة- وطن أي على التعددية على أساس التجمعات القائمة والنامية وذلك لعدم واقعية أو امكانية القضاء على التجمعات وثانيا" بسبب العيش المشترك بينها(وهذا ما تؤكده التجربة اللبنانية كما تجارب عالمية اخرى) .
وفي الاطار السياسي الدستوري برز الكلام على الديمقراطية التوافقية أو ديمقراطية التوافق Konkordanzdemokratie وخصوصا" لدى جرهارد لاهمبروخ Gerhard Lahenbruch 35 وكان أسماها أولا" ديمقراطية التناسب Proporzdemokratie وقد صاغ العالم النيذرلندي آريند ليجبهارت Arend Lijbhart مفهوم الديمقراطية التوافقية باسلوب واضح وشامل 36.
وهو أخذ مفهوم التشارك في المصير Consociation عن العالم السياسي المبدع والمجهول للأسف37 Johannes Althusius وفي حين ان لاهمبروغ قد ركّز على معنى المفهوم السياسي الذي نشأ تاريخيا" بالنسبة التعايش الديمقراطي التوافقي ، فان ليجبهارت قد ركّز على الآليات الدستورية الملائمة لذلك ..
والخلاصة انه في المجتمعات التعددية لا يوجد واقعيا" سوى خيار وحيد وهو ديمقراطية التشارك والتوافق أو لا ديمقراطية..
وقد برز الى الوجود مؤخرا" تيار فكري كبير يُعيد النظر في صيغة النظام السياسي الأنسب في المجتمعات غير المتجانسة ، وحتى في المجتمعات شبه المتجانسة ، وفي نموذج تسوية النزاعات في الدول ذات الطوائف او الفئات او المجموعات المختلفة وذلك على أساس ان قرار الاكثرية (الديمقراطية العددية) في مثل هذه المجتمعات لن يكون الا قرارا" انحيازيا" لمصلحة المجموعة الاكثر عددا" وان صيغة التوافق بين المجموعات وتشاركها في السلطة هي الصيغة الانسب وهي صيغة لا تقوم الا على التسويات الدائمة.. وفي هذا الاطار نشير الى مدرسة مجلة Telos في أميركا 38 والى مدرسة مجلة Krisis 39 في فرنسا ، كما نشير الى وثائق المؤتمر الدائم للحوار اللبناني 40 والى مجمل الحوار والصراع والتجديد الفكري الذي يرفض الاكتفاء بمدرسة النموذج المركزي الناجم مباشرة عن الثورة الفرنسية وعن تيارها الجمهوري اليعقوبي ، والذي يدعو الى اعادة الاعتبار لمدرسة النموذج الفدرالي الذي كان في أساس تجربة الولايات المتحدة الاميركية وغيرها . وتجدر الاشارة هنا الى ان النموذج الفدرالي التوافقي التشاركي هو الذي يلتقي مع الفقه السياسي الاسلامي كما عبّر عنه الامام الراحل محمد مهدي شمس الدين وخصوصا" في كتابيه : ” نظام الحكم والادارة في الاسلام “ 41 ، وفي ” الاجتماع السياسي الاسلامي “42، كما في وصيته الاخيرة... 43 ..
نحو إطار مرجعي جامع
هل يمكن بناء وطن ودولة استنادا" الى أُطر مرجعية اُصولية لا تلتقي إلا على نقض الوطن وتهديم الدولة وتوزيع مغانمها؟ وأقصد بالاصولية هنا شتى أنواع الايديولوجيات القصوى ، التي تعتبر نفسها هي الحقيقة وهي الحل ( من قومية لبنانية أو سورية أو عربية أو اسلامية... إذ لا فرق بينها الا في علاقتها بالسلطة أو في موقعها المرحلي من النظام) !.
ان تحديد إطار مرجعي جامع هو الذي ” يُسهّل التفسير المجمل الذي يجمع بين اللبنانيين كافة“ أي انه يوفّق بين وجهات نظر لبنانية متناقضة او مختلفة ، ويتوافق مع طبيعة تكوين المجتمع اللبناني ، ويكون إطارا" للفهم وللعيش في آن معا". ان ما لا ينجح الاصوليون في فهمه هو ضرورة الفصل والقطع ما بين الايديولوجيا والسياسة، لكي يمكن تفسير وفهم وعيش وتكوين وتطوير مجتمعنا ونظامنا السياسي...
فالاطار المرجعي الجامع لا يمكن ان يكون إسلاميا"، أو مسيحيا"، أو انصهاريا"، أو تقسيميا".. فكل إطار من هذه الاطر المرجعية كاف لوحده لتفجير الصيغة اللبنانية مرارا" وتكرارا".. وهذا ما قصده الامام الشيخ محمد مهدي شمس الدين حين أكّد على” انه لا يمكن قيام مشروع اسلامي او مشروع مسيحي في لبنان، لان ايا" من المشروعين سيفجر لبنان وسيفجّر نفسه“. وقد حدد الامام فهمه للكيان اللبناني بقوله: ان ” تكوين لبنان الحديث لم يُنجز لأن الفرنسيين أرادوا ذلك ، ولا لأن المسيحيين أرادوا ذلك وأجبروا المسلمين عليه ، أو لأن المسلمين أجبروا المسيحيين على ذلك، ولكن لأن المسلمين والمسيحيين معا" أرادوا ذلك. لذا أمكن إيجاد لبنان“ . وحسب الامام فانه ” في أول الامر كان هناك كيان مسيحي خالص، والمناطق الاسلامية في لبنان الفعلي كان يمكن ان تكون الآن جزءا" من سوريا “ الا ان اللبنانيين توافقوا على تكوين هذا الوطن.. وهو اعتبر ان فشل صيغة 1920 وصيغة 1943 ، كان ” لأن القيّمين عليها فشلوا في إدارتها" .. لقد فشل المسيحيون، والموارنة منهم بوجه خاص ، في جعل تلك الصيغة قابلة للتطور ومسايرة التغيّرات التي طرأت على لبنان ومحيطه وعلى العالم.. الآن نحن نصنع صيغة جديدة فيها الكثير من صيغة 1943 وفيها بعض التغيير الذي يستجيب للحقائق الجديدة أو للحقائق القديمة في لبنان ومحيطه. والذي يتحمل مسؤولية النجاح أو الفشل- لا قدّرَ الله – في هذه الصيغة الجديدة هم المسلمون . نجاح هذه الصيغة الجديدة هو مسؤولية المسلمين وليس مسؤولية المسيحيين.. من هنا قلنا ونكرر وسنظل نكرر بأن طريقة المسلمين في المشاركة في عملية الحكم والادارة وفي الخطاب السياسي وفي الخطاب التعبوي يجب ان تأخذ في الاعتبار هذا الامتحان. لا نريد ابدا" ولا نرضى أبدا" ان يكون هناك أي خطاب سياسي أو تعبوي يجعل المسيحيين يندمون أو يترددون في خيارهم الذي اختاروه في هذه الصيغة الجديدة. يجب أن تتوفر لها جميع عناصر النجاح ، لأنها إذا لم تنجح فسيكون المسلمون هذه المرة مسؤولين عن فشلها كما كان المسيحيون مسؤولين عن فشل الصيغة الأولى .من هنا ندعو السياسيين والقياديين الى أن يباشروا الأمور برفق ، وألا يدفعوا الأمور نحو أزمة في ما يتعلق بالاختيارات الكبرى في شأن الدولة والمجتمع ، وا ن تكون روح الحوار والانفتاح والإخلاص لهذا البلد ولشعبه الذي يستحق كل التكريم .. أن تكون هذه الروح هي الروح الحاكمة .
لن يكون لبنان مسيحيا" ذا وجه عربي أو إسلامي ، ولن يكون إسلاميا" ذا وجه مسيحي أو أوروبي . لبنان هو لبنان . هويته تتكوَّن من تنوعه.. من هنا أقول : إذا كان الخطاب السياسي الإسلامي يعاني من خلل ما ، فعلى القيّمين على هذا الخطاب في الحكم وفي المجتمع أن يعيدوا النظر في عناصره لكي نخرج نهائيا" من عقلية الفتنة ، وندخل بصورة نهائية في آفاق الوحدة والتعاون لتثبيت وترسيخ صيغة العيش المشترك التي ينفرد بها لبنان في العالم .توجد مجتمعات متنوعة غير لبنان ، ولكنها حتى الآن فشلت في أن تصل الى هذا المستوى من النضج الروحي والإنساني والسياسي بحيث تخترع صيغة العيش المشترك ” المقوننة “ والمبرمجة(...)...
ان هذه الصيغة التي ينفرد بها لبنان (صيغة العيش المشترك المقوننة والمبرمجة) تطرح حسب قول الامام في صميمها مسألة المساواة : ” هناك في لبنان نوع من سوء الفهم او الخلل في طرح إشكالية التعايش إذ لا بد ان يوجد الاطار التشريعي والقانوني والقاعدة الحقوقية الانسانية للتعايش . لا توجد مشكلة في أن يكوّن المسلمون والمسيحيون في لبنان أو في أي مكان آخر مجتمعا" سياسيا" واحدا" وان ينخرطوا في عالم ثقافي واحد ذي قيم مشتركة مع الاحتفاظ بالتنوّع الخاص لدى كل منهم . ان في التنوّع فرادة الانسان وخصوصية الآدمي وهذا سر من أسرار الله في البشر، والتدخل في هذه الخصوصية يحطّم قداسة الانسان . ان التنوع لا يتنافى أبدا" مع وجود مجتمع سياسي معافى بل لعله أحد شروطه“44 .
ان هذا هو ما يُعبّر عنه في علم السياسة وعلم الاجتماع السياسي بالنظام التوافقي Consociatif الذي تُرجم لبنانيا" في الآونة الاخيرة الى ” الديمقراطية التوافقية“démocratie consensuelle
والحقيقة انه ينبغي التمسك بالمفهوم العلمي للنموذج التوافقي والذي يقوم حسب انطوان مسرة 45 على خصائص رئيسية أربع :
حكومة إئتلاف واسع ، بما يضمن حماية المجموعة الاقلوية .
نسبية في التمثيل بدلا" من قاعدة الاكثرية العددية .
الفيتو المتبادل كوسيلة لحماية الاقلية ضد القرار الاكثري .
إدارة ذاتية في الميادين التي تخص الطوائف مباشرة .
ان هذا النظام التوافقي هو المعمول به فعليا" في لبنان على قاعدة ميثاق 1943 ووثيقة الطائف 1989وهو يعني ديمقراطية من نوع آخر . اذ انه في الديمقراطيات المتجانسة هناك احتمال تحوّل الاقلية الى أكثرية بفضل تغيّر الرأي العام ومن خلال صناديق الاقتراع. أما في المجتمعات المتعددة فان الاقلية محكوم عليها سياسيا" بالبقاء أقلوية وبالعزل.. ومن هنا حاجتها الى ضمانات تشريعية وقانونية .. فالمشاركة في الائتلاف الحكومي لا تكفي لحمايتها ان لم يكن لديها حق النقض في الميادين ذات الاهمية الحيوية.. وهذا ما نراه في النظام اللبناني وفق اتفاق الطائف الذي أرسى قاعدة المناصفة في البرلمان والوزارة .. ولقد أساء البعض فهم معنى الادارة الذاتية في الميادين التي تخص الطوائف مباشرة“ . فلم ينتبهوا الى ان هذه الادارة الذاتية تأخذ الشكل الاقليمي territorial عندما تتطابق الانقسامات الرئيسية مع الحدود الجغرافية ، وهي تأخذ الشكل الشخصي عندما لا تلتقي الانقسامات مع الحدود الجغرافية..ومن هنا فان الحوار النظري والعملي ينبغي ان يكون هنا حول معنى اللامركزية الادارية في لبنان من جهة، وحول معنى قانون الاحوال الشخصية من جهة اخرى .. فالادارة الذاتية هنا في لبنان هي فدرالية على أساس شخصي في دولة موحدة، وهذا غير الفدرالية القائمة على أساس إقليمي..
وبعد ، فان ما هو أساسي أخيرا" يتمثّل في إغناء الحوار الهادف الى بلورة وتطوير الصيغة اللبنانية الانسب على مستوى الحكم والادارة وكذلك على مستوى القانون الانتخابي الأفضل .
هوامــش
1- اشارة الى الكتابين الشهيرين :
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5- كارل ماركس : - حول الهند والجزائر: دار ابن خلدون ، بيروت 1980
وحول المسألة الشرقية: كتاب بريان تيرنر: ماركس ونهاية الاستشراق ، مؤسسة الابحاث العربية ، بيروت 1981.
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11- راجع بهذا الصدد كتابات : حسن الضيقة ، عادل حسين ، عبد الوهاب المسيري ، طارق البشري، عادل عبد المهدي، جلال امين ،هبة رؤوف عزت…
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13- ثيودور هانف :م.س.، ص 33- 34 .
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29-انظر : مقدمة ابن خلدون، في عشرات الطبعات، ولكن خصوصاً مقالة محمد الطالبي:
Talbi,M."Ibn khaldun et le sens de l'Histoire",in Studia islamica,XXVI,1976,p 89
30- وهو التمييز القومي الشهير بين الامة كوجود تاريخي موضوعي أزلي (الحقيقة الاجتماعية الكلية ) وبين الوعي الذاتي بهذا الوجود والشعور العاطفي بقوته وهما أساس القومية.
31- راجع : فؤاد اسحق الخوري : امامة الشهيد وامامة البطل ، بيروت 1988.
أحمد بيضون : شبكات التضامن التقليدية في المجتمع اللبناني ، مجلة النور، العدد 258 آذار ، 1966 ، لندن .
نواف سلام : م . س .، ص19-32
ثيودور هانف ، م . س ، ص 43- 45.
32- بيار روندو : Pierre Rondot, institutions politiques au Liban, Paris 1947,p22
33- انظر :هانف ، م . س ، ص 51- 56. وقارن مع كتابنا :العدل في العيش المشترك، م.س.
34- ميلتون إسمان: Milton Esman, The management of communal conflict , in: Public Policy,21(1973)pp 49-78
35- جرهارد لاهمبروخ: Gerhard Lehmbruch, لنظرة حول مؤلفاته الكثيرة راجع انطوان مسرّة ، مصدر سابق .
36- آرينت ليجبهارت: الديمقراطية في المجتمع المتعدد، دراسة مقارنة ، ترجمة إفلين مسرّة ، بيروت 1984 ( والكتاب صدر بالانكليزية عام 1975).
37- يوهانس التوسيوس: Johannes Althusius,
راجع العدد الخاص عنه في مجلة كرايزيس Krisis – العدد 22 ، مارس 1999، باريس .
38- مجلة تيلوس : تصدر في نيوروك منذ ربع قرن، أبرز محرريها روبيرتو داميكو وبول بيكوني .
39- مجلة كرايزيس : تصدر في باريس ومحررها الرئيسي آلان دو بنوا.
40- المؤتمر الدائم للحوار اللبناني : نشرة قضايا الاسبوع، وقضايا لبنانية، وقضايا الحوار ووثائق مختلفة معلنة 1993- 1996- 1999 و 2003.
41- الامام محمد مهدي شمس الدين:نظام الحكم والادارة في الاسلام ،بيروت، المؤسسة الدولية للدراسات والنشر ، الطبعة السابعة 2000...
42-في الاجتماع السياسي الاسلامي،بيروت،المؤسسة الدولية للدراسات والنشر،بيروت 1999
43- الوصايا، دار النهار للنشر،بيروت الطبعة الاولى 200
44- تم جمع هذه الاقوال والاحاديث والنصوص في كتاب :"لبنان الكيان والمعنى"، صدر عن مؤسسة الامام شمس الدين للحوار ،بيروت،2005
45- أرنت ليبهارت:الديمقراطية في مجتمع متعدد"،ترجمة افلين أبومتري مسرة،بيروت 1984،انظر مقدمة انطوان مسرة، ص. 5-12
الجمعة، 6 مارس 2009
On Violence , war , and power, in the West
On Violence , war , and power, in the West.
Notes for my students of Peace and Global Studies, at Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, USA, spring 2004
The first western theoretical thinking on violence as an independent topic was Georges Sorel’s : Reflections on Violence (in French 1906)—(New York 1961 in English)…In his introduction to the first edition Sorel wrote: “the problems of violence still remain very obscure” …Historians and statesmen and philosophers have always acknowledged the tremendous role that violence plays in human affairs , yet strangely, prior to the late sixties ,violence has rarely been singled out as a phenomenon to comprehend in its own terms.. To many , such a study seemed inescapable ( in the late sixties) in view of the war question ( Indochina , nuclear doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction),the world wide rebellion on the university campuses ( what was called in Europe the Spring Revolution of 1968), and the growing appeal of violent action in the ranks of the New Left at that time.. ”!! Hannah Arendt in her excellent book “on violence”(HBJ 1969) mentioned the general reluctance to deal with violence as a phenomenon on its own right , but noticed that “if we turn to discussions of the phenomenon of power, we soon find that there exists a consensus among political theorists from Left to Right to the effect that violence is nothing more than most flagrant manifestation of power “(p.35).. C. Wright Mills said :”all politics is a struggle for power , the ultimate kind of power is violence” (the power elite, New York,1956,p.171), echoing as it were ,Max Weber’s definition of the state as “the rule of men over men based on the means of legitimate ,that is allegedly legitimate , violence .”(Max Weber in the first paragraph of his “Politics as a Vocation”,1921).
Weber (according to Arendt) seems to have been aware of his agreement with the Left .He quotes in the context Trotsky’s remark in Brest-litovsk”, Every state is based on violence,” and adds”, this is indeed true”….To equate political power with “the organization of violence” makes sense only if one follows Marx’s estimate of the state as an instrument of oppression in the hands of the ruling class.( Arendt,p.36).
Bertrand de Jouvenel (Power: the natural history of its growth, in French 1945—English translation :London 1952) sees war as “ an activity of States which pertains to their essence”(p.122).. This prompt us to ask whether the end of warfare, then, would mean the end of states. Would the disappearance of violence in relationships between states spell the end of power?(Arendt p.36). (( here we have a large field of contemplation and research and study about the definitions , borders , and nuances when speaking of concepts of : Power , Authority ,Force , Strength , in relation with the idea of the Nation-State as sole tenant of Legitimate Violence ( according to Weber’s definition as well as Marx’s )…Please think about it : it is an excellent topic for a Final Research Project !!!
It is interesting here to quote Adam Smith (Theories of Nationalism,London:Duckworth,1971) who sees the Nation-State as “the norm of modern political organization. .It is the almost unquestionable foundation of world order , the main object of individual loyalties , the chief definer of a man’s identity…It permeates our outlook so much that we hardly question its legitimacy today”(p.2)… But it would be a mistake to suppose that the legitimacy of the nation state has never been seriously questioned …Pacifism and Anarchism , both , challenged the Nation-State.. Pacifism was the Ideology and Movement that has resisted an institution closely related to the development of the nation-state :challenging the right of the state to engage in, and conscript its citizens for , war. Anarchism was more radical : it challenges not merely the nation-state right to make war , but also its very right to exist…
The word pacifism was coined ( as recently as 1901) to refer to all those who opposed war and worked to create or maintain peace between nations…In Anglo-American usage ,”pacifist” has the narrower meaning in which it refers to those whose opposition to war takes the form of refusing personally to take part in it or support it. Such persons have also usually opposed all overt violence between human beings , though not the covert violence , usually referred to as “force”, the kind used by police. PACIFICIST is perhaps the more appropriate term to convey the broader meaning…”pacificists” may support the use of military forces in ‘peace-keeping” operations, whereas “pacifists” are generally “anti-militarists”…Historically , anti-militarism is associated with the belief that most modern wars are fought in the interests of ruling classes…in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , before socialist parties controlled any states , many socialists were anti-militarists and some socialist leaders were pacifists..( see the film “Rosa Luxemburg”)..In practice ,”pacifism”, ”pacificism” and “anti-militarism” often overlap , but the terms do stand for fairly distinct orientations.
The intellectual origins of Western pacifism are firmly rooted in the beliefs of religious sects… the first one is the followers of Jesus ( see the Sermon on the Mount to understand Jesus’ doctrine of “nonresistance to evil”…First Christians refused military service …The eclipse of this early Christian pacifism came with the conversion of Constantine who in 313 (A.D or C.E) made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire…with the sect ( Christianity) transformed into a church allied to the state, St Augustine 354-430 AD) enunciated a new doctrine : the clergy were to be totally dedicated to God and to live accordingly, but the laity were to fulfill the normal obligations of subjects. He also developed the doctrine of the “just war” which later , St Thomas Aquinas ( 1225-1274) elaborated.
In the Middle Ages several heretical sects , notably the Waldensians , the Cathari, and the Czech Brethren of the Law of Christ , challenged the new orthodoxy , and espoused pacifist ideas.( See them on the Internet or consult any Encyclopedia).
But the real beginning of the modern pacifism dates from the Reformation of the 16th century , and especially to those who came to be known as the Anabaptists…( Try to search and see for the groups of Anabaptists , the Hutterites , the Mennonites , the Quakers , the Brethren , the Amish and others….).
The first man to use the term : Anarchy , was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ( 1808-1865) , naming a society without government.. The classical anarchist movement which he initially inspired and which was further developed by Michael Bakunin ( 1814-1876) and Peter Kropotkin(1842-1921) , formed an integral , if contentious part of the wider socialist movement from the 1840s to 1939.
Saoud EL Mawla
Notes for my students of Peace and Global Studies, at Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, USA, spring 2004
The first western theoretical thinking on violence as an independent topic was Georges Sorel’s : Reflections on Violence (in French 1906)—(New York 1961 in English)…In his introduction to the first edition Sorel wrote: “the problems of violence still remain very obscure” …Historians and statesmen and philosophers have always acknowledged the tremendous role that violence plays in human affairs , yet strangely, prior to the late sixties ,violence has rarely been singled out as a phenomenon to comprehend in its own terms.. To many , such a study seemed inescapable ( in the late sixties) in view of the war question ( Indochina , nuclear doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction),the world wide rebellion on the university campuses ( what was called in Europe the Spring Revolution of 1968), and the growing appeal of violent action in the ranks of the New Left at that time.. ”!! Hannah Arendt in her excellent book “on violence”(HBJ 1969) mentioned the general reluctance to deal with violence as a phenomenon on its own right , but noticed that “if we turn to discussions of the phenomenon of power, we soon find that there exists a consensus among political theorists from Left to Right to the effect that violence is nothing more than most flagrant manifestation of power “(p.35).. C. Wright Mills said :”all politics is a struggle for power , the ultimate kind of power is violence” (the power elite, New York,1956,p.171), echoing as it were ,Max Weber’s definition of the state as “the rule of men over men based on the means of legitimate ,that is allegedly legitimate , violence .”(Max Weber in the first paragraph of his “Politics as a Vocation”,1921).
Weber (according to Arendt) seems to have been aware of his agreement with the Left .He quotes in the context Trotsky’s remark in Brest-litovsk”, Every state is based on violence,” and adds”, this is indeed true”….To equate political power with “the organization of violence” makes sense only if one follows Marx’s estimate of the state as an instrument of oppression in the hands of the ruling class.( Arendt,p.36).
Bertrand de Jouvenel (Power: the natural history of its growth, in French 1945—English translation :London 1952) sees war as “ an activity of States which pertains to their essence”(p.122).. This prompt us to ask whether the end of warfare, then, would mean the end of states. Would the disappearance of violence in relationships between states spell the end of power?(Arendt p.36). (( here we have a large field of contemplation and research and study about the definitions , borders , and nuances when speaking of concepts of : Power , Authority ,Force , Strength , in relation with the idea of the Nation-State as sole tenant of Legitimate Violence ( according to Weber’s definition as well as Marx’s )…Please think about it : it is an excellent topic for a Final Research Project !!!
It is interesting here to quote Adam Smith (Theories of Nationalism,London:Duckworth,1971) who sees the Nation-State as “the norm of modern political organization. .It is the almost unquestionable foundation of world order , the main object of individual loyalties , the chief definer of a man’s identity…It permeates our outlook so much that we hardly question its legitimacy today”(p.2)… But it would be a mistake to suppose that the legitimacy of the nation state has never been seriously questioned …Pacifism and Anarchism , both , challenged the Nation-State.. Pacifism was the Ideology and Movement that has resisted an institution closely related to the development of the nation-state :challenging the right of the state to engage in, and conscript its citizens for , war. Anarchism was more radical : it challenges not merely the nation-state right to make war , but also its very right to exist…
The word pacifism was coined ( as recently as 1901) to refer to all those who opposed war and worked to create or maintain peace between nations…In Anglo-American usage ,”pacifist” has the narrower meaning in which it refers to those whose opposition to war takes the form of refusing personally to take part in it or support it. Such persons have also usually opposed all overt violence between human beings , though not the covert violence , usually referred to as “force”, the kind used by police. PACIFICIST is perhaps the more appropriate term to convey the broader meaning…”pacificists” may support the use of military forces in ‘peace-keeping” operations, whereas “pacifists” are generally “anti-militarists”…Historically , anti-militarism is associated with the belief that most modern wars are fought in the interests of ruling classes…in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , before socialist parties controlled any states , many socialists were anti-militarists and some socialist leaders were pacifists..( see the film “Rosa Luxemburg”)..In practice ,”pacifism”, ”pacificism” and “anti-militarism” often overlap , but the terms do stand for fairly distinct orientations.
The intellectual origins of Western pacifism are firmly rooted in the beliefs of religious sects… the first one is the followers of Jesus ( see the Sermon on the Mount to understand Jesus’ doctrine of “nonresistance to evil”…First Christians refused military service …The eclipse of this early Christian pacifism came with the conversion of Constantine who in 313 (A.D or C.E) made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire…with the sect ( Christianity) transformed into a church allied to the state, St Augustine 354-430 AD) enunciated a new doctrine : the clergy were to be totally dedicated to God and to live accordingly, but the laity were to fulfill the normal obligations of subjects. He also developed the doctrine of the “just war” which later , St Thomas Aquinas ( 1225-1274) elaborated.
In the Middle Ages several heretical sects , notably the Waldensians , the Cathari, and the Czech Brethren of the Law of Christ , challenged the new orthodoxy , and espoused pacifist ideas.( See them on the Internet or consult any Encyclopedia).
But the real beginning of the modern pacifism dates from the Reformation of the 16th century , and especially to those who came to be known as the Anabaptists…( Try to search and see for the groups of Anabaptists , the Hutterites , the Mennonites , the Quakers , the Brethren , the Amish and others….).
The first man to use the term : Anarchy , was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ( 1808-1865) , naming a society without government.. The classical anarchist movement which he initially inspired and which was further developed by Michael Bakunin ( 1814-1876) and Peter Kropotkin(1842-1921) , formed an integral , if contentious part of the wider socialist movement from the 1840s to 1939.
Saoud EL Mawla
The Jews of Iraq
The Jews of Iraq
Article by Naeim Giladi
An Iraqi Jew tells his story of Zionist activities that Jews from Islamic lands did not emigrate willingly to Israel; that, to force them to leave, Jews killed Jews; and that, to buy time to confiscate ever more Arab lands, Jews on numerous occasions rejected genuine peace initiatives from their Arab neighbors.
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I write this article for the same reason I wrote my book: to tell the American people, and especially American Jews, that Jews from Islamic lands did not emigrate willingly to Israel; that, to force them to leave, Jews killed Jews; and that, to buy time to confiscate ever more Arab lands, Jews on numerous occasions rejected genuine peace initiatives from their Arab neighbors. I write about what the first prime minister of Israel called "cruel Zionism." I write about it because I was part of it.
My Story
Of course I thought I knew it all back then. I was young, idealistic, and more than willing to put my life at risk for my convictions. It was 1947 and I wasn't quite 18 when the Iraqi authorities caught me for smuggling young Iraqi Jews like myself out of Iraq, into Iran, and then on to the Promised Land of the soon-to-be established Israel.
I was an Iraqi Jew in the Zionist underground. My Iraqi jailers did everything they could to extract the names of my co-conspirators. Fifty years later, pain still throbs in my right toe-a reminder of the day my captors used pliers to remove my toenails. On another occasion, they hauled me to the flat roof of the prison, stripped me bare on a frigid January day, then threw a bucket of cold water over me. I was left there, chained to the railing, for hours. But I never once considered giving them the information they wanted. I was a true believer.
My preoccupation during what I refer to as my "two years in hell" was with survival and escape. I had no interest then in the broad sweep of Jewish history in Iraq even though my family had been part of it right from the beginning. We were originally Haroons, a large and important family of the "Babylonian Diaspora." My ancestors had settled in Iraq more than 2,600 years ago-600 years before Christianity, and 1,200 years before Islam. I am descended from Jews who built the tomb of Yehezkel, a Jewish prophet of pre-biblical times. My town, where I was born in 1929, is Hillah, not far from the ancient site of Babylon.
The original Jews found Babylon, with its nourishing Tigris and Euphrates rivers, to be truly a land of milk, honey, abundance-and opportunity. Although Jews, like other minorities in what became Iraq, experienced periods of oppression and discrimination depending on the rulers of the period, their general trajectory over two and one-half millennia was upward. Under the late Ottoman rule, for example, Jewish social and religious institutions, schools, and medical facilities flourished without outside interference, and Jews were prominent in government and business.
As I sat there in my cell, unaware that a death sentence soon would be handed down against me, I could not have recounted any personal grievances that my family members would have lodged against the government or the Muslim majority. Our family had been treated well and had prospered, first as farmers with some 50,000 acres devoted to rice, dates and Arab horses. Then, with the Ottomans, we bought and purified gold that was shipped to Istanbul and turned into coinage. The Turks were responsible in fact for changing our name to reflect our occupation-we became Khalaschi, meaning "Makers of Pure."
I did not volunteer the information to my father that I had joined the Zionist underground. He found out several months before I was arrested when he saw me writing Hebrew and using words and expressions unfamiliar to him. He was even more surprised to learn that, yes, I had decided I would soon move to Israel myself. He was scornful. "You'll come back with your tail between your legs," he predicted.
About 125,000 Jews left Iraq for Israel in the late 1940s and into 1952, most because they had been lied to and put into a panic by what I came to learn were Zionist bombs. But my mother and father were among the 6,000 who did not go to Israel. Although physically I never did return to Iraq-that bridge had been burned in any event-my heart has made the journey there many, many times. My father had it right.
I was imprisoned at the military camp of Abu-Greib, about 7 miles from Baghdad. When the military court handed down my sentence of death by hanging, I had nothing to lose by attempting the escape I had been planning for many months.
It was a strange recipe for an escape: a dab of butter, an orange peel, and some army clothing that I had asked a friend to buy for me at a flea market. I deliberately ate as much bread as I could to put on fat in anticipation of the day I became 18, when they could formally charge me with a crime and attach the 50-pound ball and chain that was standard prisoner issue.
Later, after my leg had been shackled, I went on a starvation diet that often left me weak-kneed. The pat of butter was to lubricate my leg in preparation for extricating it from the metal band. The orange peel I surreptitiously stuck into the lock on the night of my planned escape, having studied how it could be placed in such a way as to keep the lock from closing.
As the jailers turned to go after locking up, I put on the old army issue that was indistinguishable from what they were wearing-a long, green coat and a stocking cap that I pulled down over much of my face (it was winter). Then I just quietly opened the door and joined the departing group of soldiers as they strode down the hall and outside, and I offered a "good night" to the shift guard as I left. A friend with a car was waiting to speed me away.
Later I made my way to the new state of Israel, arriving in May, 1950. My passport had my name in Arabic and English, but the English couldn't capture the "kh" sound, so it was rendered simply as Klaski. At the border, the immigration people applied the English version, which had an Eastern European, Ashkenazi ring to it. In one way, this "mistake" was my key to discovering very soon just how the Israeli caste system worked.
They asked me where I wanted to go and what I wanted to do. I was the son of a farmer; I knew all the problems of the farm, so I volunteered to go to Dafnah, a farming kibbutz in the high Galilee. I only lasted a few weeks. The new immigrants were given the worst of everything. The food was the same, but that was the only thing that everyone had in common. For the immigrants, bad cigarettes, even bad toothpaste. Everything. I left.
Then, through the Jewish Agency, I was advised to go to al-Majdal (later renamed Ashkelon), an Arab town about 9 miles from Gaza, very close to the Mediterranean. The Israeli government planned to turn it into a farmers' city, so my farm background would be an asset there.
When I reported to the Labor Office in al-Majdal, they saw that I could read and write Arabic and Hebrew and they said that I could find a good-paying job with the Military Governor's office. The Arabs were under the authority of these Israeli Military Governors. A clerk handed me a bunch of forms in Arabic and Hebrew. Now it dawned on me. Before Israel could establish its farmers' city, it had to rid al-Majdal of its indigenous Palestinians. The forms were petitions to the United Nations Inspectors asking for transfer out of Israel to Gaza, which was under Egyptian control.
I read over the petition. In signing, the Palestinian would be saying that he was of sound mind and body and was making the request for transfer free of pressure or duress. Of course, there was no way that they would leave without being pressured to do so. These families had been there hundreds of years, as farmers, primitive artisans, weavers. The Military Governor prohibited them from pursuing their livelihoods, just penned them up until they lost hope of resuming their normal lives. That's when they signed to leave.
I was there and heard their grief. "Our hearts are in pain when we look at the orange trees that we planted with our own hands. Please let us go, let us give water to those trees. God will not be pleased with us if we leave His trees untended." I asked the Military Governor to give them relief, but he said, "No, we want them to leave."
I could no longer be part of this oppression and I left. Those Palestinians who didn't sign up for transfers were taken by force-just put in trucks and dumped in Gaza. About four thousand people were driven from al-Majdal in one way or another. The few who remained were collaborators with the Israeli authorities.
Subsequently, I wrote letters trying to get a government job elsewhere and I got many immediate responses asking me to come for an interview. Then they would discover that my face didn't match my Polish/Ashkenazi name. They would ask if I spoke Yiddish or Polish, and when I said I didn't, they would ask where I came by a Polish name. Desperate for a good job, I would usually say that I thought my great-grandfather was from Poland. I was advised time and again that "we'll give you a call."
Eventually, three to four years after coming to Israel, I changed my name to Giladi, which is close to the code name, Gilad, that I had in the Zionist underground. Klaski wasn't doing me any good anyway, and my Eastern friends were always chiding me about the name they knew didn't go with my origins as an Iraqi Jew.
I was disillusioned at what I found in the Promised Land, disillusioned personally, disillusioned at the institutionalized racism, disillusioned at what I was beginning to learn about Zionism's cruelties. The principal interest Israel had in Jews from Islamic countries was as a supply of cheap labor, especially for the farm work that was beneath the urbanized Eastern European Jews. Ben Gurion needed the "Oriental" Jews to farm the thousands of acres of land left by Palestinians who were driven out by Israeli forces in 1948.
And I began to find out about the barbaric methods used to rid the fledgling state of as many Palestinians as possible. The world recoils today at the thought of bacteriological warfare, but Israel was probably the first to actually use it in the Middle East. In the 1948 war, Jewish forces would empty Arab villages of their populations, often by threats, sometimes by just gunning down a half-dozen unarmed Arabs as examples to the rest. To make sure the Arabs couldn't return to make a fresh life for themselves in these villages, the Israelis put typhus and dysentery bacteria into the water wells.
Uri Mileshtin, an official historian for the Israeli Defense Force, has written and spoken about the use of bacteriological agents. According to Mileshtin, Moshe Dayan, a division commander at the time, gave orders in 1948 to remove Arabs from their villages, bulldoze their homes, and render water wells unusable with typhus and dysentery bacteria.
Acre was so situated that it could practically defend itself with one big gun, so the Haganah put bacteria into the spring that fed the town. The spring was called Capri and it ran from the north near a kibbutz. The Haganah put typhus bacteria into the water going to Acre, the people got sick, and the Jewish forces occupied Acre. This worked so well that they sent a Haganah division dressed as Arabs into Gaza, where there were Egyptian forces, and the Egyptians caught them putting two cans of bacteria, typhus and dysentery, into the water supply in wanton disregard of the civilian population. "In war, there is no sentiment," one of the captured Haganah men was quoted as saying.
My activism in Israel began shortly after I received a letter from the Socialist/Zionist Party asking me to help with their Arabic newspaper. When I showed up at their offices at Central House in Tel Aviv, I asked around to see just where I should report. I showed the letter to a couple of people there and, without even looking at it, they would motion me away with the words, "Room No. 8." When I saw that they weren't even reading the letter, I inquired of several others. But the response was the same, "Room No. 8," with not a glance at the paper I put in front of them.
So I went to Room 8 and saw that it was the Department of Jews from Islamic Countries. I was disgusted and angry. Either I am a member of the party or I'm not. Do I have a different ideology or different politics because I am an Arab Jew? It's segregation, I thought, just like a Negroes' Department. I turned around and walked out. That was the start of my open protests. That same year I organized a demonstration in Ashkelon against Ben Gurion's racist policies and 10,000 people turned out.
There wasn't much opportunity for those of us who were second class citizens to do much about it when Israel was on a war footing with outside enemies. After the 1967 war, I was in the Army myself and served in the Sinai when there was continued fighting along the Suez Canal. But the cease-fire with Egypt in 1970 gave us our opening. We took to the streets and organized politically to demand equal rights. If it's our country, if we were expected to risk our lives in a border war, then we expected equal treatment.
We mounted the struggle so tenaciously and received so much publicity that the Israeli government tried to discredit our movement by calling us "Israel's Black Panthers." They were thinking in racist terms, really, in assuming the Israeli public would reject an organization whose ideology was being compared to that of radical blacks in the United States. But we saw that what we were doing was no different than what blacks in the United States were fighting against-segregation, discrimination, unequal treatment. Rather than reject the label, we adopted it proudly. I had posters of Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Nelson Mandela and other civil rights activists plastered all over my office.
With the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and the Israeli-condoned Sabra and Shatilla massacres, I had had enough of Israel. I became a United States citizen and made certain to revoke my Israeli citizenship. I could never have written and published my book in Israel, not with the censorship they would impose.
Even in America, I had great difficulty finding a publisher because many are subject to pressures of one kind or another from Israel and its friends. I ended up paying $60,000 from my own pocket to publish Ben Gurion's Scandals: How the Haganah & the Mossad Eliminated Jews, virtually the entire proceeds from having sold my house in Israel.
I still was afraid that the printer would back out or that legal proceedings would be initiated to stop its publication, like the Israeli government did in an attempt to prevent former Mossad case officer Victor Ostrovsky from publishing his first book. Ben Gurion's Scandals had to be translated into English from two languages. I wrote in Hebrew when I was in Israel and hoped to publish the book there, and I wrote in Arabic when I was completing the book after coming to the U.S. But I was so worried that something would stop publication that I told the printer not to wait for the translations to be thoroughly checked and proofread. Now I realize that the publicity of a lawsuit would just have created a controversial interest in the book.
I am using bank vault storage for the valuable documents that back up what I have written. These documents, including some that I illegally copied from the archives at Yad Vashem, confirm what I saw myself, what I was told by other witnesses, and what reputable historians and others have written concerning the Zionist bombings in Iraq, Arab peace overtures that were rebuffed, and incidents of violence and death inflicted by Jews on Jews in the cause of creating Israel.
The Riots of 1941
If, as I have said, my family in Iraq was not persecuted personally and I knew no deprivation as a member of the Jewish minority, what led me to the steps of the gallows as a member of the Zionist underground? To answer that question, it is necessary to establish the context of the massacre that occurred in Baghdad on June 1, 1941, when several hundred Iraqi Jews were killed in riots involving junior officers of the Iraqi army. I was 12 years of age and many of those killed were my friends. I was angry, and very confused.
What I didn't know at the time was that the riots most likely were stirred up by the British, in collusion with a pro-British Iraqi leadership.
With the breakup of the Ottoman Empire following WW I, Iraq came under British "tutelage." Amir Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein who had led the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman sultan, was brought in from Mecca by the British to become King of Iraq in 1921. Many Jews were appointed to key administrative posts, including that of economics minister. Britain retained final authority over domestic and external affairs. Britain's pro-Zionist attitude in Palestine, however, triggered a growing anti-Zionist backlash in Iraq, as it did in all Arab countries. Writing at the end of 1934, Sir Francis Humphreys, Britain's Ambassador in Baghdad, noted that, while before WW I Iraqi Jews had enjoyed a more favorable position than any other minority in the country, since then "Zionism has sown dissension between Jews and Arabs, and a bitterness has grown up between the two peoples which did not previously exist."
King Faisal died in 1933. He was succeeded by his son Ghazi, who died in a motor car accident in 1939. The crown then passed to Ghazi's 4-year-old son, Faisal II, whose uncle, Abd al-Ilah, was named regent. Abd al-Ilah selected Nouri el-Said as prime minister. El-Said supported the British and, as hatred of the British grew, he was forced from office in March 1940 by four senior army officers who advocated Iraq's independence from Britain. Calling themselves the Golden Square, the officers compelled the regent to name as prime minister Rashid Ali al-Kilani, leader of the National Brotherhood party.
The time was 1940 and Britain was reeling from a strong German offensive. Al-Kilani and the Golden Square saw this as their opportunity to rid themselves of the British once and for all. Cautiously they began to negotiate for German support, which led the pro-British regent Abd al-Ilah to dismiss al-Kilani in January 1941. By April, however, the Golden Square officers had reinstated the prime minister.
This provoked the British to send a military force into Basra on April 12, 1941. Basra, Iraq's second largest city, had a Jewish population of 30,000. Most of these Jews made their livings from import/export, money changing, retailing, as workers in the airports, railways, and ports, or as senior government employees.
On the same day, April 12, supporters of the pro-British regent notified the Jewish leaders that the regent wanted to meet with them. As was their custom, the leaders brought flowers for the regent. Contrary to custom, however, the cars that drove them to the meeting place dropped them off at the site where the British soldiers were concentrated.
Photographs of the Jews appeared in the following day's newspapers with the banner "Basra Jews Receive British Troops with Flowers." That same day, April 13, groups of angry Arab youths set about to take revenge against the Jews. Several Muslim notables in Basra heard of the plan and calmed things down. Later, it was learned that the regent was not in Basra at all and that the matter was a provocation by his pro-British supporters to bring about an ethnic war in order to give the British army a pretext to intervene.
The British continued to land more forces in and around Basra. On May 7, 1941, their Gurkha unit, composed of Indian soldiers from that ethnic group, occupied Basra's el-Oshar quarter, a neighborhood with a large Jewish population. The soldiers, led by British officers, began looting. Many shops in the commercial district were plundered. Private homes were broken into. Cases of attempted rape were reported. Local residents, Jews and Muslims, responded with pistols and old rifles, but their bullets were no match for the soldiers' Tommy Guns.
Afterwards, it was learned that the soldiers acted with the acquiescence, if not the blessing, of their British commanders. (It should be remembered that the Indian soldiers, especially those of the Gurkha unit, were known for their discipline, and it is highly unlikely they would have acted so riotously without orders.) The British goal clearly was to create chaos and to blacken the image of the pro-nationalist regime in Baghdad, thereby giving the British forces reason to proceed to the capital and to overthrow the al-Kilani government.
Baghdad fell on May 30. Al-Kilani fled to Iran, along with the Golden Square officers. Radio stations run by the British reported that Regent Abd al-Ilah would be returning to the city and that thousands of Jews and others were planning to welcome him. What inflamed young Iraqis against the Jews most, however, was the radio announcer Yunas Bahri on the German station "Berlin," who reported in Arabic that Jews from Palestine were fighting alongside the British against Iraqi soldiers near the city of Faluja. The report was false.
On Sunday, June 1, unarmed fighting broke out in Baghdad between Jews who were still celebrating their Shabuoth holiday and young Iraqis who thought the Jews were celebrating the return of the pro-British regent. That evening, a group of Iraqis stopped a bus, removed the Jewish passengers, murdered one and fatally wounded a second.
About 8:30 the following morning, some 30 individuals in military and police uniforms opened fire along el-Amin street, a small downtown street whose jewelry, tailor and grocery shops were Jewish-owned. By 11 a.m., mobs of Iraqis with knives, switchblades and clubs were attacking Jewish homes in the area.
The riots continued throughout Monday, June 2. During this time, many Muslims rose to defend their Jewish neighbors, while some Jews successfully defended themselves. There were 124 killed and 400 injured, according to a report written by a Jewish Agency messenger who was in Iraq at the time. Other estimates, possibly less reliable, put the death toll higher, as many as 500, with from 650 to 2,000 injured. From 500 to 1,300 stores and more than 1,000 homes and apartments were looted.
Who was behind the rioting in the Jewish quarter?
Yosef Meir, one of the most prominent activists in the Zionist underground movement in Iraq, known then as Yehoshafat, claims it was the British. Meir, who now works for the Israeli Defense Ministry, argues that, in order to make it appear that the regent was returning as the savior who would reestablish law and order, the British stirred up the riots against the most vulnerable and visible segment in the city, the Jews. And, not surprisingly, the riots ended as soon as the regent's loyal soldiers entered the capital.
My own investigations as a journalist lead me to believe Meir is correct. Furthermore, I think his claims should be seen as based on documents in the archives of the Israeli Defense Ministry, the agency that published his book. Yet, even before his book came out, I had independent confirmation from a man I met in Iran in the late Forties.
His name was Michael Timosian, an Iraqi Armenian. When I met him he was working as a male nurse at the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in Abadan in the south of Iran. On June 2, 1941, however, he was working at the Baghdad hospital where many of the riot victims were brought. Most of these victims were Jews.
Timosian said he was particularly interested in two patients whose conduct did not follow local custom. One had been hit by a bullet in his shoulder, the other by a bullet in his right knee. After the doctor removed the bullets, the staff tried to change their blood-soaked cloths. But the two men fought off their efforts, pretending to be speechless, although tests showed they could hear. To pacify them, the doctor injected them with anesthetics and, as they were sleeping, Timosian changed their cloths. He discovered that one of them had around his neck an identification tag of the type used by British troops, while the other had tattoos with Indian script on his right arm along with the familiar sword of the Gurkha.
The next day when Timosian showed up for work, he was told that a British officer, his sergeant and two Indian Gurkha soldiers had come to the hospital early that morning. Staff members overheard the Gurkha soldiers talking with the wounded patients, who were not as dumb as they had pretended. The patients saluted the visitors, covered themselves with sheets and, without signing the required release forms, left the hospital with their visitors.
Today there is no doubt in my mind that the anti-Jewish riots of 1941 were orchestrated by the British for geopolitical ends. David Kimche is certainly a man who was in a position to know the truth, and he has spoken publicly about British culpability. Kimche had been with British Intelligence during WW II and with the Mossad after the war. Later he became Director General of Israel's Foreign Ministry, the position he held in 1982 when he addressed a forum at the British Institute for International Affairs in London.
In responding to hostile questions about Israel's invasion of Lebanon and the refugee camp massacres in Beirut, Kimche went on the attack, reminding the audience that there was scant concern in the British Foreign Office when British Gurkha units participated in the murder of 500 Jews in the streets of Baghdad in 1941.
The Bombings of 1950-1951
The anti-Jewish riots of 1941 did more than create a pretext for the British to enter Baghdad to reinstate the pro-British regent and his pro-British prime minister, Nouri el-Said. They also gave the Zionists in Palestine a pretext to set up a Zionist underground in Iraq, first in Baghdad, then in other cities such as Basra, Amara, Hillah, Diwaneia, Abril and Karkouk.
Following WW II, a succession of governments held brief power in Iraq. Zionist conquests in Palestine, particularly the massacre of Palestinians in the village of Deir Yassin, emboldened the anti-British movement in Iraq. When the Iraqi government signed a new treaty of friendship with London in January 1948, riots broke out all over the country. The treaty was quickly abandoned and Baghdad demanded removal of the British military mission that had run Iraq's army for 27 years.
Later in 1948, Baghdad sent an army detachment to Palestine to fight the Zionists, and when Israel declared independence in May, Iraq closed the pipeline that fed its oil to Haifa's refinery. Abd al-Ilah, however, was still regent and the British quisling, Nouri el-Said, was back as prime minister. I was in the Abu-Greib prison in 1948, where I would remain until my escape to Iran in September 1949.
Six months later-the exact date was March 19, 1950-a bomb went off at the American Cultural Center and Library in Baghdad, causing property damage and injuring a number of people. The center was a favorite meeting place for young Jews.
The first bomb thrown directly at Jews occurred on April 8, 1950, at 9:15 p.m. A car with three young passengers hurled the grenade at Baghdad's El-Dar El-Bida Café, where Jews were celebrating Passover. Four people were seriously injured. That night leaflets were distributed calling on Jews to leave Iraq immediately.
The next day, many Jews, most of them poor with nothing to lose, jammed emigration offices to renounce their citizenship and to apply for permission to leave for Israel. So many applied, in fact, that the police had to open registration offices in Jewish schools and synagogues.
On May 10, at 3 a.m., a grenade was tossed in the direction of the display window of the Jewish-owned Beit-Lawi Automobile Company, destroying part of the building. No casualties were reported.
On June 3, 1950, another grenade was tossed from a speeding car in the El-Batawin area of Baghdad where most rich Jews and middle class Iraqis lived. No one was hurt, but following the explosion Zionist activists sent telegrams to Israel requesting that the quota for immigration from Iraq be increased.
On June 5, at 2:30 a.m., a bomb exploded next to the Jewish-owned Stanley Shashua building on El-Rashid street, resulting in property damage but no casualties.
On January 14, 1951, at 7 p.m., a grenade was thrown at a group of Jews outside the Masouda Shem-Tov Synagogue. The explosive struck a high-voltage cable, electrocuting three Jews, one a young boy, Itzhak Elmacher, and wounding over 30 others. Following the attack, the exodus of Jews jumped to between 600-700 per day.
Zionist propagandists still maintain that the bombs in Iraq were set off by anti-Jewish Iraqis who wanted Jews out of their country. The terrible truth is that the grenades that killed and maimed Iraqi Jews and damaged their property were thrown by Zionist Jews.
Among the most important documents in my book, I believe, are copies of two leaflets published by the Zionist underground calling on Jews to leave Iraq. One is dated March 16, 1950, the other April 8, 1950.
The difference between these two is critical. Both indicate the date of publication, but only the April 8th leaflet notes the time of day: 4 p.m. Why the time of day? Such a specification was unprecedented. Even the investigating judge, Salaman El-Beit, found it suspicious. Did the 4 p.m. writers want an alibi for a bombing they knew would occur five hours later? If so, how did they know about the bombing? The judge concluded they knew because a connection existed between the Zionist underground and the bomb throwers.
This, too, was the conclusion of Wilbur Crane Eveland, a former senior officer in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), whom I had the opportunity to meet in New York in 1988. In his book, Ropes of Sand, whose publication the CIA opposed, Eveland writes:
In attempts to portray the Iraqis as anti-American and to terrorize the Jews, the Zionists planted bombs in the U.S. Information Service library and in synagogues. Soon leaflets began to appear urging Jews to flee to Israel. . . . Although the Iraqi police later provided our embassy with evidence to show that the synagogue and library bombings, as well as the anti-Jewish and anti-American leaflet campaigns, had been the work of an underground Zionist organization, most of the world believed reports that Arab terrorism had motivated the flight of the Iraqi Jews whom the Zionists had "rescued" really just in order to increase Israel's Jewish population."
Eveland doesn't detail the evidence linking the Zionists to the attacks, but in my book I do. In 1955, for example, I organized in Israel a panel of Jewish attorneys of Iraqi origin to handle claims of Iraqi Jews who still had property in Iraq. One well known attorney, who asked that I not give his name, confided in me that the laboratory tests in Iraq had confirmed that the anti-American leaflets found at the American Cultural Center bombing were typed on the same typewriter and duplicated on the same stenciling machine as the leaflets distributed by the Zionist movement just before the April 8th bombing.
Tests also showed that the type of explosive used in the Beit-Lawi attack matched traces of explosives found in the suitcase of an Iraqi Jew by the name of Yosef Basri. Basri, a lawyer, together with Shalom Salih, a shoemaker, would be put on trial for the attacks in December 1951 and executed the following month. Both men were members of Hashura, the military arm of the Zionist underground. Salih ultimately confessed that he, Basri and a third man, Yosef Habaza, carried out the attacks.
By the time of the executions in January 1952, all but 6,000 of an estimated 125,000 Iraqi Jews had fled to Israel. Moreover, the pro-British, pro-Zionist puppet el-Said saw to it that all of their possessions were frozen, including their cash assets. (There were ways of getting Iraqi dinars out, but when the immigrants went to exchange them in Israel they found that the Israeli government kept 50 percent of the value.) Even those Iraqi Jews who had not registered to emigrate, but who happened to be abroad, faced loss of their nationality if they didn't return within a specified time. An ancient, cultured, prosperous community had been uprooted and its people transplanted to a land dominated by East European Jews, whose culture was not only foreign but entirely hateful to them.
The Ultimate Criminals
Zionist Leaders.
From the start they knew that in order to establish a Jewish state they had to expel the indigenous Palestinian population to the neighboring Islamic states and import Jews from these same states.
* Theodor Herzl, the architect of Zionism, thought it could be done by social engineering. In his diary entry for 12 June 1885, he wrote that Zionist settlers would have to "spirit the penniless population across the border by procuring employment for it in the transit countries, while denying it any employment in our own country."
* Vladimir Jabotinsky, Prime Minister Netanyahu's ideological progenitor, frankly admitted that such a transfer of populations could only be brought about by force.
* David Ben Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, told a Zionist Conference in 1937 that any proposed Jewish state would have to "transfer Arab populations out of the area, if possible of their own free will, if not by coercion." After 750,000 Palestinians were uprooted and their lands confiscated in 1948-49, Ben Gurion had to look to the Islamic countries for Jews who could fill the resultant cheap labor market. "Emissaries" were smuggled into these countries to "convince" Jews to leave either by trickery or fear.
In the case of Iraq, both methods were used: uneducated Jews were told of a Messianic Israel in which the blind see, the lame walk, and onions grow as big as melons; educated Jews had bombs thrown at them.
A few years after the bombings, in the early 1950s, a book was published in Iraq, in Arabic, titled Venom of the Zionist Viper. The author was one of the Iraqi investigators of the 1950-51 bombings and, in his book, he implicates the Israelis, specifically one of the emissaries sent by Israel, Mordechai Ben-Porat. As soon as the book came out, all copies just disappeared, even from libraries. The word was that agents of the Israeli Mossad, working through the U.S. Embassy, bought up all the books and destroyed them. I tried on three different occasions to have one sent to me in Israel, but each time Israeli censors in the post office intercepted it.
British Leaders.
Britain always acted in its best colonial interests. For that reason Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour sent his famous 1917 letter to Lord Rothschild in exchange for Zionist support in WW I. During WW II the British were primarily concerned with keeping their client states in the Western camp, while Zionists were most concerned with the immigration of European Jews to Palestine, even if this meant cooperating with the Nazis. (In my book I document numerous instances of such dealings by Ben Gurion and the Zionist leadership.)
After WW II the international chessboard pitted communists against capitalists. In many countries, including the United States and Iraq, Jews represented a large part of the Communist party. In Iraq, hundreds of Jews of the working intelligentsia occupied key positions in the hierarchy of the Communist and Socialist parties. To keep their client countries in the capitalist camp, Britain had to make sure these governments had pro-British leaders. And if, as in Iraq, these leaders were overthrown, then an anti-Jewish riot or two could prove a useful pretext to invade the capital and reinstate the "right" leaders.
Moreover, if the possibility existed of removing the communist influence from Iraq by transferring the whole Jewish community to Israel, well then, why not? Particularly if the leaders of Israel and Iraq conspired in the deed.
The Iraqi Leaders.
Both the regent Abd al-Ilah and his prime minister Nouri el- Said took directions from London. Toward the end of 1948, el-Said, who had already met with Israel's Prime Minister Ben Gurion in Vienna, began discussing with his Iraqi and British associates the need for an exchange of populations. Iraq would send the Jews in military trucks to Israel via Jordan, and Iraq would take in some of the Palestinians Israel had been evicting. His proposal included mutual confiscation of property. London nixed the idea as too radical.
El-Said then went to his back-up plan and began to create the conditions that would make the lives of Iraqi Jews so miserable they would leave for Israel. Jewish government employees were fired from their jobs; Jewish merchants were denied import/export licenses; police began to arrest Jews for trivial reasons. Still the Jews did not leave in any great numbers.
In September 1949, Israel sent the spy Mordechai Ben-Porat, the one mentioned in Venom of the Zionist Viper, to Iraq. One of the first things Ben-Porat did was to approach el-Said and promise him financial incentives to have a law enacted that would lift the citizenship of Iraqi Jews.
Soon after, Zionist and Iraqi representatives began formulating a rough draft of the bill, according to the model dictated by Israel through its agents in Baghdad. The bill was passed by the Iraqi parliament in March 1950. It empowered the government to issue one-time exit visas to Jews wishing to leave the country. In March, the bombings began.
Sixteen years later, the Israeli magazine Haolam Hazeh, published by Uri Avnery, then a Knesset member, accused Ben-Porat of the Baghdad bombings. Ben-Porat, who would become a Knesset member himself, denied the charge, but never sued the magazine for libel. And Iraqi Jews in Israel still call him Morad Abu al-Knabel, Mordechai of the Bombs.
As I said, all this went well beyond the comprehension of a teenager. I knew Jews were being killed and an organization existed that could lead us to the Promised Land. So I helped in the exodus to Israel. Later, on occasions, I would bump into some of these Iraqi Jews in Israel. Not infrequently they'd express the sentiment that they could kill me for what I had done.
Opportunities for Peace
After the Israeli attack on the Jordanian village of Qibya in October, 1953, Ben Gurion went into voluntary exile at the Sedeh Boker kibbutz in the Negev. The Labor party then used to organize many buses for people to go visit him there, where they would see the former prime minister working with sheep. But that was only for show. Really he was writing his diary and continuing to be active behind the scenes. I went on such a tour.
Ben Gurion's Scandals
by N.Giladi
How the Haganah and Mossad eliminated Jews.
Available in our BookstoreWe were told not to try to speak to Ben Gurion, but when I saw him, I asked why, since Israel is a democracy with a parliament, does it not have a constitution? Ben Gurion said, "Look, boy"-I was 24 at the time-"if we have a constitution, we have to write in it the border of our country. And this is not our border, my dear." I asked, "Then where is the border?" He said, "Wherever the Sahal will come, this is the border." Sahal is the Israeli army.
Ben Gurion told the world that Israel accepted the partition and the Arabs rejected it. Then Israel took half of the land that was promised to the Arab state. And still he was saying it was not enough. Israel needed more land. How can a country make peace with its neighbors if it wants to take their land? How can a country demand to be secure if it won't say what borders it will be satisfied with? For such a country, peace would be an inconvenience.
I know now that from the beginning many Arab leaders wanted to make peace with Israel, but Israel always refused. Ben Gurion covered this up with propaganda. He said that the Arabs wanted to drive Israel into the sea and he called Gamal Abdel Nasser the Hitler of the Middle East whose foremost intent was to destroy Israel. He wanted America and Great Britain to treat Nasser like a pariah.
In 1954, it seemed that America was getting less critical of Nasser. Then during a three-week period in July, several terrorist bombs were set off: at the United States Information Agency offices in Cairo and Alexandria, a British-owned theater, and the central post office in Cairo. An attempt to firebomb a cinema in Alexandria failed when the bomb went off in the pocket of one of the perpetrators. That led to the discovery that the terrorists were not anti-Western Egyptians, but were instead Israeli spies bent on souring the warming relationship between Egypt and the United States in what came to be known as the Lavon Affair.
Ben Gurion was still living on his kibbutz. Moshe Sharett as prime minister was in contact with Abdel Nasser through the offices of Lord Maurice Orbach of Great Britain. Sharett asked Nasser to be lenient with the captured spies, and Nasser did all that was in his power to prevent a deterioration of the situation between the two countries.
Then Ben Gurion returned as Defense Minister in February, 1955. Later that month Israeli troops attacked Egyptian military camps and Palestinian refugees in Gaza, killing 54 and injuring many more. The very night of the attack, Lord Orbach was on his way to deliver a message to Nasser, but was unable to get through because of the military action. When Orbach telephoned, Nasser's secretary told him that the attack proved that Israel did not want peace and that he was wasting his time as a mediator.
In November, Ben Gurion announced in the Knesset that he was willing to meet with Abdel Nasser anywhere and at any time for the sake of peace and understanding. The next morning the Israeli military attacked an Egyptian military camp in the Sabaha region.
Although Nasser felt pessimistic about achieving peace with Israel, he continued to send other mediators to try. One was through the American Friends Service Committee; another via the Prime Minister of Malta, Dom Minthoff; and still another through Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia.
One that looked particularly promising was through Dennis Hamilton, editor of The London Times. Nasser told Hamilton that if only he could sit and talk with Ben Gurion for two or three hours, they would be able to settle the conflict and end the state of war between the two countries. When word of this reached Ben Gurion, he arranged to meet with Hamilton. They decided to pursue the matter with the Israeli ambassador in London, Arthur Luria, as liaison. On Hamilton's third trip to Egypt, Nasser met him with the text of a Ben Gurion speech stating that Israel would not give up an inch of land and would not take back a single refugee. Hamilton knew that Ben Gurion with his mouth had undermined a peace mission and missed an opportunity to settle the Israeli-Arab conflict.
Nasser even sent his friend Ibrahim Izat of the Ruz El Yusuf weekly paper to meet with Israeli leaders in order to explore the political atmosphere and find out why the attacks were taking place if Israel really wanted peace. One of the men Izat met with was Yigal Yadin, a former Chief of Staff of the army who wrote this letter to me on 14 January 1982:
Dear Mr. Giladi:
Your letter reminded me of an event which I nearly forgot and of which I remember only a few details.
Ibrahim Izat came to me if I am not mistaken under the request of the Foreign Ministry or one of its branches; he stayed in my house and we spoke for many hours. I do not remember him saying that he came on a mission from Nasser, but I have no doubt that he let it be understood that this was with his knowledge or acquiescence....
When Nasser decided to nationalize the Suez Canal in spite of opposition from the British and the French, Radio Cairo announced in Hebrew:
If the Israeli government is not influenced by the British and the French imperialists, it will eventually result in greater understanding between the two states, and Egypt will reconsider Israel's request to have access to the Suez Canal.
Israel responded that it had no designs on Egypt, but at that very moment Israeli representatives were in France planning the three-way attack that was to take place in October, 1956.
All the while, Ben Gurion continued to talk about the Hitler of the Middle East. This brainwashing went on until late September, 1970, when Gamal Abdel Nasser passed away. Then, miracle of miracles, David Ben Gurion told the press:
A week before he died I received an envoy from Abdel Nasser who asked to meet with me urgently in order to solve the problems between Israel and the Arab world.
The public was surprised because they didn't know that Abdel Nasser had wanted this all along, but Israel sabotaged it.
Nasser was not the only Arab leader who wanted to make peace with Israel. There were many others. Brigadier General Abdel Karim Qasem, before he seized power in Iraq in July, 1958, headed an underground organization that sent a delegation to Israel to make a secret agreement. Ben Gurion refused even to see him. I learned about this when I was a journalist in Israel. But whenever I tried to publish even a small part of it, the censor would stamp it "Not Allowed."
Now, in Netanyahu, we are witnessing another attempt by an Israeli prime minister to fake an interest in making peace. Netanyahu and the Likud are setting Arafat up by demanding that he institute more and more repressive measures in the interest of Israeli "security." Sooner or later I suspect the Palestinians will have had enough of Arafat's strong-arm methods as Israel's quisling-and he'll be killed. Then the Israeli government will say, "See, we were ready to give him everything. You can't trust those Arabs-they kill each other. Now there's no one to even talk to about peace."
Conclusion
Alexis de Tocqueville once observed that it is easier for the world to accept a simple lie than a complex truth. Certainly it has been easier for the world to accept the Zionist lie that Jews were evicted from Muslim lands because of anti-Semitism, and that Israelis, never the Arabs, were the pursuers of peace. The truth is far more discerning: bigger players on the world stage were pulling the strings.
These players, I believe, should be held accountable for their crimes, particularly when they willfully terrorized, dispossessed and killed innocent people on the altar of some ideological imperative.
I believe, too, that the descendants of these leaders have a moral responsibility to compensate the victims and their descendants, and to do so not just with reparations, but by setting the historical record straight.
That is why I established a panel of inquiry in Israel to seek reparations for Iraqi Jews who had been forced to leave behind their property and possessions in Iraq. That is why I joined the Black Panthers in confronting the Israeli government with the grievances of the Jews in Israel who came from Islamic lands. And that is why I have written my book and this article: to set the historical record straight.
We Jews from Islamic lands did not leave our ancestral homes because of any natural enmity between Jews and Muslims. And we Arabs-I say Arab because that is the language my wife and I still speak at home-we Arabs on numerous occasions have sought peace with the State of the Jews. And finally, as a U.S. citizen and taxpayer, let me say that we Americans need to stop supporting racial discrimination in Israel and the cruel expropriation of lands in the West Bank, Gaza, South Lebanon and the Golan Heights.
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END NOTES
Mileshtin was quoted by the Israeli daily, Hadashot, in an article published August 13, 1993. The writer, Sarah Laybobis-Dar, interviewed a number of Israelis who had knowledge of the use of bacteriological weapons in the 1948 war. Mileshtin said bacteria was used to poison the wells of every village emptied of its Arab inhabitants.
On Sept. 12, 1990, the New York State Supreme Court issued a restraining order at the request of the Israeli government to prevent publication of Ostrovsky's book, "By Way of Deception: The Making and Unmaking of a Mossad Officer." The New York State Appeals Court lifted the ban the next day.
Marion Woolfson, "Prophets in Babylon: Jews in the Arab World," p. 129
Yosef Meir, "Road in the Desert," Israeli Defense Ministry, p. 36.
See my book, "Ben Gurion's Scandals," p. 105.
Wilbur Crane Eveland, "Ropes of Sand: America's Failure in the Middle East," NY; Norton, 1980, pp. 48-49.
T. Herzl, "The Complete Diaries," NY: Herzl Press & Thomas Yoncloff, 1960, vol. 1, p. 88.
Report of the Congress of the World Council of Paole Zion, Zurich, July 29-August 7, 1937, pp. 73-74.
Article by Naeim Giladi
An Iraqi Jew tells his story of Zionist activities that Jews from Islamic lands did not emigrate willingly to Israel; that, to force them to leave, Jews killed Jews; and that, to buy time to confiscate ever more Arab lands, Jews on numerous occasions rejected genuine peace initiatives from their Arab neighbors.
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I write this article for the same reason I wrote my book: to tell the American people, and especially American Jews, that Jews from Islamic lands did not emigrate willingly to Israel; that, to force them to leave, Jews killed Jews; and that, to buy time to confiscate ever more Arab lands, Jews on numerous occasions rejected genuine peace initiatives from their Arab neighbors. I write about what the first prime minister of Israel called "cruel Zionism." I write about it because I was part of it.
My Story
Of course I thought I knew it all back then. I was young, idealistic, and more than willing to put my life at risk for my convictions. It was 1947 and I wasn't quite 18 when the Iraqi authorities caught me for smuggling young Iraqi Jews like myself out of Iraq, into Iran, and then on to the Promised Land of the soon-to-be established Israel.
I was an Iraqi Jew in the Zionist underground. My Iraqi jailers did everything they could to extract the names of my co-conspirators. Fifty years later, pain still throbs in my right toe-a reminder of the day my captors used pliers to remove my toenails. On another occasion, they hauled me to the flat roof of the prison, stripped me bare on a frigid January day, then threw a bucket of cold water over me. I was left there, chained to the railing, for hours. But I never once considered giving them the information they wanted. I was a true believer.
My preoccupation during what I refer to as my "two years in hell" was with survival and escape. I had no interest then in the broad sweep of Jewish history in Iraq even though my family had been part of it right from the beginning. We were originally Haroons, a large and important family of the "Babylonian Diaspora." My ancestors had settled in Iraq more than 2,600 years ago-600 years before Christianity, and 1,200 years before Islam. I am descended from Jews who built the tomb of Yehezkel, a Jewish prophet of pre-biblical times. My town, where I was born in 1929, is Hillah, not far from the ancient site of Babylon.
The original Jews found Babylon, with its nourishing Tigris and Euphrates rivers, to be truly a land of milk, honey, abundance-and opportunity. Although Jews, like other minorities in what became Iraq, experienced periods of oppression and discrimination depending on the rulers of the period, their general trajectory over two and one-half millennia was upward. Under the late Ottoman rule, for example, Jewish social and religious institutions, schools, and medical facilities flourished without outside interference, and Jews were prominent in government and business.
As I sat there in my cell, unaware that a death sentence soon would be handed down against me, I could not have recounted any personal grievances that my family members would have lodged against the government or the Muslim majority. Our family had been treated well and had prospered, first as farmers with some 50,000 acres devoted to rice, dates and Arab horses. Then, with the Ottomans, we bought and purified gold that was shipped to Istanbul and turned into coinage. The Turks were responsible in fact for changing our name to reflect our occupation-we became Khalaschi, meaning "Makers of Pure."
I did not volunteer the information to my father that I had joined the Zionist underground. He found out several months before I was arrested when he saw me writing Hebrew and using words and expressions unfamiliar to him. He was even more surprised to learn that, yes, I had decided I would soon move to Israel myself. He was scornful. "You'll come back with your tail between your legs," he predicted.
About 125,000 Jews left Iraq for Israel in the late 1940s and into 1952, most because they had been lied to and put into a panic by what I came to learn were Zionist bombs. But my mother and father were among the 6,000 who did not go to Israel. Although physically I never did return to Iraq-that bridge had been burned in any event-my heart has made the journey there many, many times. My father had it right.
I was imprisoned at the military camp of Abu-Greib, about 7 miles from Baghdad. When the military court handed down my sentence of death by hanging, I had nothing to lose by attempting the escape I had been planning for many months.
It was a strange recipe for an escape: a dab of butter, an orange peel, and some army clothing that I had asked a friend to buy for me at a flea market. I deliberately ate as much bread as I could to put on fat in anticipation of the day I became 18, when they could formally charge me with a crime and attach the 50-pound ball and chain that was standard prisoner issue.
Later, after my leg had been shackled, I went on a starvation diet that often left me weak-kneed. The pat of butter was to lubricate my leg in preparation for extricating it from the metal band. The orange peel I surreptitiously stuck into the lock on the night of my planned escape, having studied how it could be placed in such a way as to keep the lock from closing.
As the jailers turned to go after locking up, I put on the old army issue that was indistinguishable from what they were wearing-a long, green coat and a stocking cap that I pulled down over much of my face (it was winter). Then I just quietly opened the door and joined the departing group of soldiers as they strode down the hall and outside, and I offered a "good night" to the shift guard as I left. A friend with a car was waiting to speed me away.
Later I made my way to the new state of Israel, arriving in May, 1950. My passport had my name in Arabic and English, but the English couldn't capture the "kh" sound, so it was rendered simply as Klaski. At the border, the immigration people applied the English version, which had an Eastern European, Ashkenazi ring to it. In one way, this "mistake" was my key to discovering very soon just how the Israeli caste system worked.
They asked me where I wanted to go and what I wanted to do. I was the son of a farmer; I knew all the problems of the farm, so I volunteered to go to Dafnah, a farming kibbutz in the high Galilee. I only lasted a few weeks. The new immigrants were given the worst of everything. The food was the same, but that was the only thing that everyone had in common. For the immigrants, bad cigarettes, even bad toothpaste. Everything. I left.
Then, through the Jewish Agency, I was advised to go to al-Majdal (later renamed Ashkelon), an Arab town about 9 miles from Gaza, very close to the Mediterranean. The Israeli government planned to turn it into a farmers' city, so my farm background would be an asset there.
When I reported to the Labor Office in al-Majdal, they saw that I could read and write Arabic and Hebrew and they said that I could find a good-paying job with the Military Governor's office. The Arabs were under the authority of these Israeli Military Governors. A clerk handed me a bunch of forms in Arabic and Hebrew. Now it dawned on me. Before Israel could establish its farmers' city, it had to rid al-Majdal of its indigenous Palestinians. The forms were petitions to the United Nations Inspectors asking for transfer out of Israel to Gaza, which was under Egyptian control.
I read over the petition. In signing, the Palestinian would be saying that he was of sound mind and body and was making the request for transfer free of pressure or duress. Of course, there was no way that they would leave without being pressured to do so. These families had been there hundreds of years, as farmers, primitive artisans, weavers. The Military Governor prohibited them from pursuing their livelihoods, just penned them up until they lost hope of resuming their normal lives. That's when they signed to leave.
I was there and heard their grief. "Our hearts are in pain when we look at the orange trees that we planted with our own hands. Please let us go, let us give water to those trees. God will not be pleased with us if we leave His trees untended." I asked the Military Governor to give them relief, but he said, "No, we want them to leave."
I could no longer be part of this oppression and I left. Those Palestinians who didn't sign up for transfers were taken by force-just put in trucks and dumped in Gaza. About four thousand people were driven from al-Majdal in one way or another. The few who remained were collaborators with the Israeli authorities.
Subsequently, I wrote letters trying to get a government job elsewhere and I got many immediate responses asking me to come for an interview. Then they would discover that my face didn't match my Polish/Ashkenazi name. They would ask if I spoke Yiddish or Polish, and when I said I didn't, they would ask where I came by a Polish name. Desperate for a good job, I would usually say that I thought my great-grandfather was from Poland. I was advised time and again that "we'll give you a call."
Eventually, three to four years after coming to Israel, I changed my name to Giladi, which is close to the code name, Gilad, that I had in the Zionist underground. Klaski wasn't doing me any good anyway, and my Eastern friends were always chiding me about the name they knew didn't go with my origins as an Iraqi Jew.
I was disillusioned at what I found in the Promised Land, disillusioned personally, disillusioned at the institutionalized racism, disillusioned at what I was beginning to learn about Zionism's cruelties. The principal interest Israel had in Jews from Islamic countries was as a supply of cheap labor, especially for the farm work that was beneath the urbanized Eastern European Jews. Ben Gurion needed the "Oriental" Jews to farm the thousands of acres of land left by Palestinians who were driven out by Israeli forces in 1948.
And I began to find out about the barbaric methods used to rid the fledgling state of as many Palestinians as possible. The world recoils today at the thought of bacteriological warfare, but Israel was probably the first to actually use it in the Middle East. In the 1948 war, Jewish forces would empty Arab villages of their populations, often by threats, sometimes by just gunning down a half-dozen unarmed Arabs as examples to the rest. To make sure the Arabs couldn't return to make a fresh life for themselves in these villages, the Israelis put typhus and dysentery bacteria into the water wells.
Uri Mileshtin, an official historian for the Israeli Defense Force, has written and spoken about the use of bacteriological agents. According to Mileshtin, Moshe Dayan, a division commander at the time, gave orders in 1948 to remove Arabs from their villages, bulldoze their homes, and render water wells unusable with typhus and dysentery bacteria.
Acre was so situated that it could practically defend itself with one big gun, so the Haganah put bacteria into the spring that fed the town. The spring was called Capri and it ran from the north near a kibbutz. The Haganah put typhus bacteria into the water going to Acre, the people got sick, and the Jewish forces occupied Acre. This worked so well that they sent a Haganah division dressed as Arabs into Gaza, where there were Egyptian forces, and the Egyptians caught them putting two cans of bacteria, typhus and dysentery, into the water supply in wanton disregard of the civilian population. "In war, there is no sentiment," one of the captured Haganah men was quoted as saying.
My activism in Israel began shortly after I received a letter from the Socialist/Zionist Party asking me to help with their Arabic newspaper. When I showed up at their offices at Central House in Tel Aviv, I asked around to see just where I should report. I showed the letter to a couple of people there and, without even looking at it, they would motion me away with the words, "Room No. 8." When I saw that they weren't even reading the letter, I inquired of several others. But the response was the same, "Room No. 8," with not a glance at the paper I put in front of them.
So I went to Room 8 and saw that it was the Department of Jews from Islamic Countries. I was disgusted and angry. Either I am a member of the party or I'm not. Do I have a different ideology or different politics because I am an Arab Jew? It's segregation, I thought, just like a Negroes' Department. I turned around and walked out. That was the start of my open protests. That same year I organized a demonstration in Ashkelon against Ben Gurion's racist policies and 10,000 people turned out.
There wasn't much opportunity for those of us who were second class citizens to do much about it when Israel was on a war footing with outside enemies. After the 1967 war, I was in the Army myself and served in the Sinai when there was continued fighting along the Suez Canal. But the cease-fire with Egypt in 1970 gave us our opening. We took to the streets and organized politically to demand equal rights. If it's our country, if we were expected to risk our lives in a border war, then we expected equal treatment.
We mounted the struggle so tenaciously and received so much publicity that the Israeli government tried to discredit our movement by calling us "Israel's Black Panthers." They were thinking in racist terms, really, in assuming the Israeli public would reject an organization whose ideology was being compared to that of radical blacks in the United States. But we saw that what we were doing was no different than what blacks in the United States were fighting against-segregation, discrimination, unequal treatment. Rather than reject the label, we adopted it proudly. I had posters of Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Nelson Mandela and other civil rights activists plastered all over my office.
With the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and the Israeli-condoned Sabra and Shatilla massacres, I had had enough of Israel. I became a United States citizen and made certain to revoke my Israeli citizenship. I could never have written and published my book in Israel, not with the censorship they would impose.
Even in America, I had great difficulty finding a publisher because many are subject to pressures of one kind or another from Israel and its friends. I ended up paying $60,000 from my own pocket to publish Ben Gurion's Scandals: How the Haganah & the Mossad Eliminated Jews, virtually the entire proceeds from having sold my house in Israel.
I still was afraid that the printer would back out or that legal proceedings would be initiated to stop its publication, like the Israeli government did in an attempt to prevent former Mossad case officer Victor Ostrovsky from publishing his first book. Ben Gurion's Scandals had to be translated into English from two languages. I wrote in Hebrew when I was in Israel and hoped to publish the book there, and I wrote in Arabic when I was completing the book after coming to the U.S. But I was so worried that something would stop publication that I told the printer not to wait for the translations to be thoroughly checked and proofread. Now I realize that the publicity of a lawsuit would just have created a controversial interest in the book.
I am using bank vault storage for the valuable documents that back up what I have written. These documents, including some that I illegally copied from the archives at Yad Vashem, confirm what I saw myself, what I was told by other witnesses, and what reputable historians and others have written concerning the Zionist bombings in Iraq, Arab peace overtures that were rebuffed, and incidents of violence and death inflicted by Jews on Jews in the cause of creating Israel.
The Riots of 1941
If, as I have said, my family in Iraq was not persecuted personally and I knew no deprivation as a member of the Jewish minority, what led me to the steps of the gallows as a member of the Zionist underground? To answer that question, it is necessary to establish the context of the massacre that occurred in Baghdad on June 1, 1941, when several hundred Iraqi Jews were killed in riots involving junior officers of the Iraqi army. I was 12 years of age and many of those killed were my friends. I was angry, and very confused.
What I didn't know at the time was that the riots most likely were stirred up by the British, in collusion with a pro-British Iraqi leadership.
With the breakup of the Ottoman Empire following WW I, Iraq came under British "tutelage." Amir Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein who had led the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman sultan, was brought in from Mecca by the British to become King of Iraq in 1921. Many Jews were appointed to key administrative posts, including that of economics minister. Britain retained final authority over domestic and external affairs. Britain's pro-Zionist attitude in Palestine, however, triggered a growing anti-Zionist backlash in Iraq, as it did in all Arab countries. Writing at the end of 1934, Sir Francis Humphreys, Britain's Ambassador in Baghdad, noted that, while before WW I Iraqi Jews had enjoyed a more favorable position than any other minority in the country, since then "Zionism has sown dissension between Jews and Arabs, and a bitterness has grown up between the two peoples which did not previously exist."
King Faisal died in 1933. He was succeeded by his son Ghazi, who died in a motor car accident in 1939. The crown then passed to Ghazi's 4-year-old son, Faisal II, whose uncle, Abd al-Ilah, was named regent. Abd al-Ilah selected Nouri el-Said as prime minister. El-Said supported the British and, as hatred of the British grew, he was forced from office in March 1940 by four senior army officers who advocated Iraq's independence from Britain. Calling themselves the Golden Square, the officers compelled the regent to name as prime minister Rashid Ali al-Kilani, leader of the National Brotherhood party.
The time was 1940 and Britain was reeling from a strong German offensive. Al-Kilani and the Golden Square saw this as their opportunity to rid themselves of the British once and for all. Cautiously they began to negotiate for German support, which led the pro-British regent Abd al-Ilah to dismiss al-Kilani in January 1941. By April, however, the Golden Square officers had reinstated the prime minister.
This provoked the British to send a military force into Basra on April 12, 1941. Basra, Iraq's second largest city, had a Jewish population of 30,000. Most of these Jews made their livings from import/export, money changing, retailing, as workers in the airports, railways, and ports, or as senior government employees.
On the same day, April 12, supporters of the pro-British regent notified the Jewish leaders that the regent wanted to meet with them. As was their custom, the leaders brought flowers for the regent. Contrary to custom, however, the cars that drove them to the meeting place dropped them off at the site where the British soldiers were concentrated.
Photographs of the Jews appeared in the following day's newspapers with the banner "Basra Jews Receive British Troops with Flowers." That same day, April 13, groups of angry Arab youths set about to take revenge against the Jews. Several Muslim notables in Basra heard of the plan and calmed things down. Later, it was learned that the regent was not in Basra at all and that the matter was a provocation by his pro-British supporters to bring about an ethnic war in order to give the British army a pretext to intervene.
The British continued to land more forces in and around Basra. On May 7, 1941, their Gurkha unit, composed of Indian soldiers from that ethnic group, occupied Basra's el-Oshar quarter, a neighborhood with a large Jewish population. The soldiers, led by British officers, began looting. Many shops in the commercial district were plundered. Private homes were broken into. Cases of attempted rape were reported. Local residents, Jews and Muslims, responded with pistols and old rifles, but their bullets were no match for the soldiers' Tommy Guns.
Afterwards, it was learned that the soldiers acted with the acquiescence, if not the blessing, of their British commanders. (It should be remembered that the Indian soldiers, especially those of the Gurkha unit, were known for their discipline, and it is highly unlikely they would have acted so riotously without orders.) The British goal clearly was to create chaos and to blacken the image of the pro-nationalist regime in Baghdad, thereby giving the British forces reason to proceed to the capital and to overthrow the al-Kilani government.
Baghdad fell on May 30. Al-Kilani fled to Iran, along with the Golden Square officers. Radio stations run by the British reported that Regent Abd al-Ilah would be returning to the city and that thousands of Jews and others were planning to welcome him. What inflamed young Iraqis against the Jews most, however, was the radio announcer Yunas Bahri on the German station "Berlin," who reported in Arabic that Jews from Palestine were fighting alongside the British against Iraqi soldiers near the city of Faluja. The report was false.
On Sunday, June 1, unarmed fighting broke out in Baghdad between Jews who were still celebrating their Shabuoth holiday and young Iraqis who thought the Jews were celebrating the return of the pro-British regent. That evening, a group of Iraqis stopped a bus, removed the Jewish passengers, murdered one and fatally wounded a second.
About 8:30 the following morning, some 30 individuals in military and police uniforms opened fire along el-Amin street, a small downtown street whose jewelry, tailor and grocery shops were Jewish-owned. By 11 a.m., mobs of Iraqis with knives, switchblades and clubs were attacking Jewish homes in the area.
The riots continued throughout Monday, June 2. During this time, many Muslims rose to defend their Jewish neighbors, while some Jews successfully defended themselves. There were 124 killed and 400 injured, according to a report written by a Jewish Agency messenger who was in Iraq at the time. Other estimates, possibly less reliable, put the death toll higher, as many as 500, with from 650 to 2,000 injured. From 500 to 1,300 stores and more than 1,000 homes and apartments were looted.
Who was behind the rioting in the Jewish quarter?
Yosef Meir, one of the most prominent activists in the Zionist underground movement in Iraq, known then as Yehoshafat, claims it was the British. Meir, who now works for the Israeli Defense Ministry, argues that, in order to make it appear that the regent was returning as the savior who would reestablish law and order, the British stirred up the riots against the most vulnerable and visible segment in the city, the Jews. And, not surprisingly, the riots ended as soon as the regent's loyal soldiers entered the capital.
My own investigations as a journalist lead me to believe Meir is correct. Furthermore, I think his claims should be seen as based on documents in the archives of the Israeli Defense Ministry, the agency that published his book. Yet, even before his book came out, I had independent confirmation from a man I met in Iran in the late Forties.
His name was Michael Timosian, an Iraqi Armenian. When I met him he was working as a male nurse at the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in Abadan in the south of Iran. On June 2, 1941, however, he was working at the Baghdad hospital where many of the riot victims were brought. Most of these victims were Jews.
Timosian said he was particularly interested in two patients whose conduct did not follow local custom. One had been hit by a bullet in his shoulder, the other by a bullet in his right knee. After the doctor removed the bullets, the staff tried to change their blood-soaked cloths. But the two men fought off their efforts, pretending to be speechless, although tests showed they could hear. To pacify them, the doctor injected them with anesthetics and, as they were sleeping, Timosian changed their cloths. He discovered that one of them had around his neck an identification tag of the type used by British troops, while the other had tattoos with Indian script on his right arm along with the familiar sword of the Gurkha.
The next day when Timosian showed up for work, he was told that a British officer, his sergeant and two Indian Gurkha soldiers had come to the hospital early that morning. Staff members overheard the Gurkha soldiers talking with the wounded patients, who were not as dumb as they had pretended. The patients saluted the visitors, covered themselves with sheets and, without signing the required release forms, left the hospital with their visitors.
Today there is no doubt in my mind that the anti-Jewish riots of 1941 were orchestrated by the British for geopolitical ends. David Kimche is certainly a man who was in a position to know the truth, and he has spoken publicly about British culpability. Kimche had been with British Intelligence during WW II and with the Mossad after the war. Later he became Director General of Israel's Foreign Ministry, the position he held in 1982 when he addressed a forum at the British Institute for International Affairs in London.
In responding to hostile questions about Israel's invasion of Lebanon and the refugee camp massacres in Beirut, Kimche went on the attack, reminding the audience that there was scant concern in the British Foreign Office when British Gurkha units participated in the murder of 500 Jews in the streets of Baghdad in 1941.
The Bombings of 1950-1951
The anti-Jewish riots of 1941 did more than create a pretext for the British to enter Baghdad to reinstate the pro-British regent and his pro-British prime minister, Nouri el-Said. They also gave the Zionists in Palestine a pretext to set up a Zionist underground in Iraq, first in Baghdad, then in other cities such as Basra, Amara, Hillah, Diwaneia, Abril and Karkouk.
Following WW II, a succession of governments held brief power in Iraq. Zionist conquests in Palestine, particularly the massacre of Palestinians in the village of Deir Yassin, emboldened the anti-British movement in Iraq. When the Iraqi government signed a new treaty of friendship with London in January 1948, riots broke out all over the country. The treaty was quickly abandoned and Baghdad demanded removal of the British military mission that had run Iraq's army for 27 years.
Later in 1948, Baghdad sent an army detachment to Palestine to fight the Zionists, and when Israel declared independence in May, Iraq closed the pipeline that fed its oil to Haifa's refinery. Abd al-Ilah, however, was still regent and the British quisling, Nouri el-Said, was back as prime minister. I was in the Abu-Greib prison in 1948, where I would remain until my escape to Iran in September 1949.
Six months later-the exact date was March 19, 1950-a bomb went off at the American Cultural Center and Library in Baghdad, causing property damage and injuring a number of people. The center was a favorite meeting place for young Jews.
The first bomb thrown directly at Jews occurred on April 8, 1950, at 9:15 p.m. A car with three young passengers hurled the grenade at Baghdad's El-Dar El-Bida Café, where Jews were celebrating Passover. Four people were seriously injured. That night leaflets were distributed calling on Jews to leave Iraq immediately.
The next day, many Jews, most of them poor with nothing to lose, jammed emigration offices to renounce their citizenship and to apply for permission to leave for Israel. So many applied, in fact, that the police had to open registration offices in Jewish schools and synagogues.
On May 10, at 3 a.m., a grenade was tossed in the direction of the display window of the Jewish-owned Beit-Lawi Automobile Company, destroying part of the building. No casualties were reported.
On June 3, 1950, another grenade was tossed from a speeding car in the El-Batawin area of Baghdad where most rich Jews and middle class Iraqis lived. No one was hurt, but following the explosion Zionist activists sent telegrams to Israel requesting that the quota for immigration from Iraq be increased.
On June 5, at 2:30 a.m., a bomb exploded next to the Jewish-owned Stanley Shashua building on El-Rashid street, resulting in property damage but no casualties.
On January 14, 1951, at 7 p.m., a grenade was thrown at a group of Jews outside the Masouda Shem-Tov Synagogue. The explosive struck a high-voltage cable, electrocuting three Jews, one a young boy, Itzhak Elmacher, and wounding over 30 others. Following the attack, the exodus of Jews jumped to between 600-700 per day.
Zionist propagandists still maintain that the bombs in Iraq were set off by anti-Jewish Iraqis who wanted Jews out of their country. The terrible truth is that the grenades that killed and maimed Iraqi Jews and damaged their property were thrown by Zionist Jews.
Among the most important documents in my book, I believe, are copies of two leaflets published by the Zionist underground calling on Jews to leave Iraq. One is dated March 16, 1950, the other April 8, 1950.
The difference between these two is critical. Both indicate the date of publication, but only the April 8th leaflet notes the time of day: 4 p.m. Why the time of day? Such a specification was unprecedented. Even the investigating judge, Salaman El-Beit, found it suspicious. Did the 4 p.m. writers want an alibi for a bombing they knew would occur five hours later? If so, how did they know about the bombing? The judge concluded they knew because a connection existed between the Zionist underground and the bomb throwers.
This, too, was the conclusion of Wilbur Crane Eveland, a former senior officer in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), whom I had the opportunity to meet in New York in 1988. In his book, Ropes of Sand, whose publication the CIA opposed, Eveland writes:
In attempts to portray the Iraqis as anti-American and to terrorize the Jews, the Zionists planted bombs in the U.S. Information Service library and in synagogues. Soon leaflets began to appear urging Jews to flee to Israel. . . . Although the Iraqi police later provided our embassy with evidence to show that the synagogue and library bombings, as well as the anti-Jewish and anti-American leaflet campaigns, had been the work of an underground Zionist organization, most of the world believed reports that Arab terrorism had motivated the flight of the Iraqi Jews whom the Zionists had "rescued" really just in order to increase Israel's Jewish population."
Eveland doesn't detail the evidence linking the Zionists to the attacks, but in my book I do. In 1955, for example, I organized in Israel a panel of Jewish attorneys of Iraqi origin to handle claims of Iraqi Jews who still had property in Iraq. One well known attorney, who asked that I not give his name, confided in me that the laboratory tests in Iraq had confirmed that the anti-American leaflets found at the American Cultural Center bombing were typed on the same typewriter and duplicated on the same stenciling machine as the leaflets distributed by the Zionist movement just before the April 8th bombing.
Tests also showed that the type of explosive used in the Beit-Lawi attack matched traces of explosives found in the suitcase of an Iraqi Jew by the name of Yosef Basri. Basri, a lawyer, together with Shalom Salih, a shoemaker, would be put on trial for the attacks in December 1951 and executed the following month. Both men were members of Hashura, the military arm of the Zionist underground. Salih ultimately confessed that he, Basri and a third man, Yosef Habaza, carried out the attacks.
By the time of the executions in January 1952, all but 6,000 of an estimated 125,000 Iraqi Jews had fled to Israel. Moreover, the pro-British, pro-Zionist puppet el-Said saw to it that all of their possessions were frozen, including their cash assets. (There were ways of getting Iraqi dinars out, but when the immigrants went to exchange them in Israel they found that the Israeli government kept 50 percent of the value.) Even those Iraqi Jews who had not registered to emigrate, but who happened to be abroad, faced loss of their nationality if they didn't return within a specified time. An ancient, cultured, prosperous community had been uprooted and its people transplanted to a land dominated by East European Jews, whose culture was not only foreign but entirely hateful to them.
The Ultimate Criminals
Zionist Leaders.
From the start they knew that in order to establish a Jewish state they had to expel the indigenous Palestinian population to the neighboring Islamic states and import Jews from these same states.
* Theodor Herzl, the architect of Zionism, thought it could be done by social engineering. In his diary entry for 12 June 1885, he wrote that Zionist settlers would have to "spirit the penniless population across the border by procuring employment for it in the transit countries, while denying it any employment in our own country."
* Vladimir Jabotinsky, Prime Minister Netanyahu's ideological progenitor, frankly admitted that such a transfer of populations could only be brought about by force.
* David Ben Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, told a Zionist Conference in 1937 that any proposed Jewish state would have to "transfer Arab populations out of the area, if possible of their own free will, if not by coercion." After 750,000 Palestinians were uprooted and their lands confiscated in 1948-49, Ben Gurion had to look to the Islamic countries for Jews who could fill the resultant cheap labor market. "Emissaries" were smuggled into these countries to "convince" Jews to leave either by trickery or fear.
In the case of Iraq, both methods were used: uneducated Jews were told of a Messianic Israel in which the blind see, the lame walk, and onions grow as big as melons; educated Jews had bombs thrown at them.
A few years after the bombings, in the early 1950s, a book was published in Iraq, in Arabic, titled Venom of the Zionist Viper. The author was one of the Iraqi investigators of the 1950-51 bombings and, in his book, he implicates the Israelis, specifically one of the emissaries sent by Israel, Mordechai Ben-Porat. As soon as the book came out, all copies just disappeared, even from libraries. The word was that agents of the Israeli Mossad, working through the U.S. Embassy, bought up all the books and destroyed them. I tried on three different occasions to have one sent to me in Israel, but each time Israeli censors in the post office intercepted it.
British Leaders.
Britain always acted in its best colonial interests. For that reason Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour sent his famous 1917 letter to Lord Rothschild in exchange for Zionist support in WW I. During WW II the British were primarily concerned with keeping their client states in the Western camp, while Zionists were most concerned with the immigration of European Jews to Palestine, even if this meant cooperating with the Nazis. (In my book I document numerous instances of such dealings by Ben Gurion and the Zionist leadership.)
After WW II the international chessboard pitted communists against capitalists. In many countries, including the United States and Iraq, Jews represented a large part of the Communist party. In Iraq, hundreds of Jews of the working intelligentsia occupied key positions in the hierarchy of the Communist and Socialist parties. To keep their client countries in the capitalist camp, Britain had to make sure these governments had pro-British leaders. And if, as in Iraq, these leaders were overthrown, then an anti-Jewish riot or two could prove a useful pretext to invade the capital and reinstate the "right" leaders.
Moreover, if the possibility existed of removing the communist influence from Iraq by transferring the whole Jewish community to Israel, well then, why not? Particularly if the leaders of Israel and Iraq conspired in the deed.
The Iraqi Leaders.
Both the regent Abd al-Ilah and his prime minister Nouri el- Said took directions from London. Toward the end of 1948, el-Said, who had already met with Israel's Prime Minister Ben Gurion in Vienna, began discussing with his Iraqi and British associates the need for an exchange of populations. Iraq would send the Jews in military trucks to Israel via Jordan, and Iraq would take in some of the Palestinians Israel had been evicting. His proposal included mutual confiscation of property. London nixed the idea as too radical.
El-Said then went to his back-up plan and began to create the conditions that would make the lives of Iraqi Jews so miserable they would leave for Israel. Jewish government employees were fired from their jobs; Jewish merchants were denied import/export licenses; police began to arrest Jews for trivial reasons. Still the Jews did not leave in any great numbers.
In September 1949, Israel sent the spy Mordechai Ben-Porat, the one mentioned in Venom of the Zionist Viper, to Iraq. One of the first things Ben-Porat did was to approach el-Said and promise him financial incentives to have a law enacted that would lift the citizenship of Iraqi Jews.
Soon after, Zionist and Iraqi representatives began formulating a rough draft of the bill, according to the model dictated by Israel through its agents in Baghdad. The bill was passed by the Iraqi parliament in March 1950. It empowered the government to issue one-time exit visas to Jews wishing to leave the country. In March, the bombings began.
Sixteen years later, the Israeli magazine Haolam Hazeh, published by Uri Avnery, then a Knesset member, accused Ben-Porat of the Baghdad bombings. Ben-Porat, who would become a Knesset member himself, denied the charge, but never sued the magazine for libel. And Iraqi Jews in Israel still call him Morad Abu al-Knabel, Mordechai of the Bombs.
As I said, all this went well beyond the comprehension of a teenager. I knew Jews were being killed and an organization existed that could lead us to the Promised Land. So I helped in the exodus to Israel. Later, on occasions, I would bump into some of these Iraqi Jews in Israel. Not infrequently they'd express the sentiment that they could kill me for what I had done.
Opportunities for Peace
After the Israeli attack on the Jordanian village of Qibya in October, 1953, Ben Gurion went into voluntary exile at the Sedeh Boker kibbutz in the Negev. The Labor party then used to organize many buses for people to go visit him there, where they would see the former prime minister working with sheep. But that was only for show. Really he was writing his diary and continuing to be active behind the scenes. I went on such a tour.
Ben Gurion's Scandals
by N.Giladi
How the Haganah and Mossad eliminated Jews.
Available in our BookstoreWe were told not to try to speak to Ben Gurion, but when I saw him, I asked why, since Israel is a democracy with a parliament, does it not have a constitution? Ben Gurion said, "Look, boy"-I was 24 at the time-"if we have a constitution, we have to write in it the border of our country. And this is not our border, my dear." I asked, "Then where is the border?" He said, "Wherever the Sahal will come, this is the border." Sahal is the Israeli army.
Ben Gurion told the world that Israel accepted the partition and the Arabs rejected it. Then Israel took half of the land that was promised to the Arab state. And still he was saying it was not enough. Israel needed more land. How can a country make peace with its neighbors if it wants to take their land? How can a country demand to be secure if it won't say what borders it will be satisfied with? For such a country, peace would be an inconvenience.
I know now that from the beginning many Arab leaders wanted to make peace with Israel, but Israel always refused. Ben Gurion covered this up with propaganda. He said that the Arabs wanted to drive Israel into the sea and he called Gamal Abdel Nasser the Hitler of the Middle East whose foremost intent was to destroy Israel. He wanted America and Great Britain to treat Nasser like a pariah.
In 1954, it seemed that America was getting less critical of Nasser. Then during a three-week period in July, several terrorist bombs were set off: at the United States Information Agency offices in Cairo and Alexandria, a British-owned theater, and the central post office in Cairo. An attempt to firebomb a cinema in Alexandria failed when the bomb went off in the pocket of one of the perpetrators. That led to the discovery that the terrorists were not anti-Western Egyptians, but were instead Israeli spies bent on souring the warming relationship between Egypt and the United States in what came to be known as the Lavon Affair.
Ben Gurion was still living on his kibbutz. Moshe Sharett as prime minister was in contact with Abdel Nasser through the offices of Lord Maurice Orbach of Great Britain. Sharett asked Nasser to be lenient with the captured spies, and Nasser did all that was in his power to prevent a deterioration of the situation between the two countries.
Then Ben Gurion returned as Defense Minister in February, 1955. Later that month Israeli troops attacked Egyptian military camps and Palestinian refugees in Gaza, killing 54 and injuring many more. The very night of the attack, Lord Orbach was on his way to deliver a message to Nasser, but was unable to get through because of the military action. When Orbach telephoned, Nasser's secretary told him that the attack proved that Israel did not want peace and that he was wasting his time as a mediator.
In November, Ben Gurion announced in the Knesset that he was willing to meet with Abdel Nasser anywhere and at any time for the sake of peace and understanding. The next morning the Israeli military attacked an Egyptian military camp in the Sabaha region.
Although Nasser felt pessimistic about achieving peace with Israel, he continued to send other mediators to try. One was through the American Friends Service Committee; another via the Prime Minister of Malta, Dom Minthoff; and still another through Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia.
One that looked particularly promising was through Dennis Hamilton, editor of The London Times. Nasser told Hamilton that if only he could sit and talk with Ben Gurion for two or three hours, they would be able to settle the conflict and end the state of war between the two countries. When word of this reached Ben Gurion, he arranged to meet with Hamilton. They decided to pursue the matter with the Israeli ambassador in London, Arthur Luria, as liaison. On Hamilton's third trip to Egypt, Nasser met him with the text of a Ben Gurion speech stating that Israel would not give up an inch of land and would not take back a single refugee. Hamilton knew that Ben Gurion with his mouth had undermined a peace mission and missed an opportunity to settle the Israeli-Arab conflict.
Nasser even sent his friend Ibrahim Izat of the Ruz El Yusuf weekly paper to meet with Israeli leaders in order to explore the political atmosphere and find out why the attacks were taking place if Israel really wanted peace. One of the men Izat met with was Yigal Yadin, a former Chief of Staff of the army who wrote this letter to me on 14 January 1982:
Dear Mr. Giladi:
Your letter reminded me of an event which I nearly forgot and of which I remember only a few details.
Ibrahim Izat came to me if I am not mistaken under the request of the Foreign Ministry or one of its branches; he stayed in my house and we spoke for many hours. I do not remember him saying that he came on a mission from Nasser, but I have no doubt that he let it be understood that this was with his knowledge or acquiescence....
When Nasser decided to nationalize the Suez Canal in spite of opposition from the British and the French, Radio Cairo announced in Hebrew:
If the Israeli government is not influenced by the British and the French imperialists, it will eventually result in greater understanding between the two states, and Egypt will reconsider Israel's request to have access to the Suez Canal.
Israel responded that it had no designs on Egypt, but at that very moment Israeli representatives were in France planning the three-way attack that was to take place in October, 1956.
All the while, Ben Gurion continued to talk about the Hitler of the Middle East. This brainwashing went on until late September, 1970, when Gamal Abdel Nasser passed away. Then, miracle of miracles, David Ben Gurion told the press:
A week before he died I received an envoy from Abdel Nasser who asked to meet with me urgently in order to solve the problems between Israel and the Arab world.
The public was surprised because they didn't know that Abdel Nasser had wanted this all along, but Israel sabotaged it.
Nasser was not the only Arab leader who wanted to make peace with Israel. There were many others. Brigadier General Abdel Karim Qasem, before he seized power in Iraq in July, 1958, headed an underground organization that sent a delegation to Israel to make a secret agreement. Ben Gurion refused even to see him. I learned about this when I was a journalist in Israel. But whenever I tried to publish even a small part of it, the censor would stamp it "Not Allowed."
Now, in Netanyahu, we are witnessing another attempt by an Israeli prime minister to fake an interest in making peace. Netanyahu and the Likud are setting Arafat up by demanding that he institute more and more repressive measures in the interest of Israeli "security." Sooner or later I suspect the Palestinians will have had enough of Arafat's strong-arm methods as Israel's quisling-and he'll be killed. Then the Israeli government will say, "See, we were ready to give him everything. You can't trust those Arabs-they kill each other. Now there's no one to even talk to about peace."
Conclusion
Alexis de Tocqueville once observed that it is easier for the world to accept a simple lie than a complex truth. Certainly it has been easier for the world to accept the Zionist lie that Jews were evicted from Muslim lands because of anti-Semitism, and that Israelis, never the Arabs, were the pursuers of peace. The truth is far more discerning: bigger players on the world stage were pulling the strings.
These players, I believe, should be held accountable for their crimes, particularly when they willfully terrorized, dispossessed and killed innocent people on the altar of some ideological imperative.
I believe, too, that the descendants of these leaders have a moral responsibility to compensate the victims and their descendants, and to do so not just with reparations, but by setting the historical record straight.
That is why I established a panel of inquiry in Israel to seek reparations for Iraqi Jews who had been forced to leave behind their property and possessions in Iraq. That is why I joined the Black Panthers in confronting the Israeli government with the grievances of the Jews in Israel who came from Islamic lands. And that is why I have written my book and this article: to set the historical record straight.
We Jews from Islamic lands did not leave our ancestral homes because of any natural enmity between Jews and Muslims. And we Arabs-I say Arab because that is the language my wife and I still speak at home-we Arabs on numerous occasions have sought peace with the State of the Jews. And finally, as a U.S. citizen and taxpayer, let me say that we Americans need to stop supporting racial discrimination in Israel and the cruel expropriation of lands in the West Bank, Gaza, South Lebanon and the Golan Heights.
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END NOTES
Mileshtin was quoted by the Israeli daily, Hadashot, in an article published August 13, 1993. The writer, Sarah Laybobis-Dar, interviewed a number of Israelis who had knowledge of the use of bacteriological weapons in the 1948 war. Mileshtin said bacteria was used to poison the wells of every village emptied of its Arab inhabitants.
On Sept. 12, 1990, the New York State Supreme Court issued a restraining order at the request of the Israeli government to prevent publication of Ostrovsky's book, "By Way of Deception: The Making and Unmaking of a Mossad Officer." The New York State Appeals Court lifted the ban the next day.
Marion Woolfson, "Prophets in Babylon: Jews in the Arab World," p. 129
Yosef Meir, "Road in the Desert," Israeli Defense Ministry, p. 36.
See my book, "Ben Gurion's Scandals," p. 105.
Wilbur Crane Eveland, "Ropes of Sand: America's Failure in the Middle East," NY; Norton, 1980, pp. 48-49.
T. Herzl, "The Complete Diaries," NY: Herzl Press & Thomas Yoncloff, 1960, vol. 1, p. 88.
Report of the Congress of the World Council of Paole Zion, Zurich, July 29-August 7, 1937, pp. 73-74.
نحن وسوريا : لا عودة الى الوراء ولا مراهنة على تغيير سريع
نحن وسوريا : لا عودة الى الوراء ولا مراهنة على تغيير سريع ! السبت 27 ايلول 2003 -النهار
سعود المولى
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ينتظر اللبنانيون، بكثير من الريبة والترقب، مثلهم في ذلك مثل إخوانهم السوريين، أية اشارة ولو بسيطة تسمح لهم بفهم حقيقة الاصلاح والتغيير الذي كثر الحديث عنه اخيراً. ذلك ان الامر يعنيهم جداً وهم يعرفون من خبرتهم المديدة في هذا المجال ان الكلام شيء والواقع شيء آخر. ومن هنا فانهم يحاولون جاهدين التعرّف ولو من بعد على ملامح المشروع الاصلاحي العتيد في سوريا علهم يتأكدون او يعرفون حقيقته ومآله. وخبرتهم وتجاربهم في هذا الميدان تملي عليهم موقف التريث والترقب وعدم استعجال إطلاق الاحكام. فالامر يتعلق بسوريا وهم ما تعودوا، ولا تجرأوا، ومنذ سنين طويلة، على مجرد الاشارة اليها تصريحاً او تلميحاً في حواراتهم او مداولاتهم او حتى توقعاتهم السياسية. فكيف اذا كان المطروح شعارات إصلاح وتغيير قد يفهم منها البعض انقلاباً او ثورة او تمرداً على الواقع القائم؟ وكيف اذا كان الحديث عن الاصلاح والتغيير يتم في ظروف اشتداد الضغوط الاميركية على سوريا؟ (...).
الحديث اذن عن الاصلاح ومشروعه في سوريا هو حديث خطير (وفي لبنان بالذات). ومن هنا استنكافنا جميعاً عن طرح هذا الملف ضاربين عرض الحائط بتاريخنا وتراثنا في ممارسة النقد السياسي والنقد الذاتي والمراجعات التي زخرت بها أدبياتنا الحزبية والنضالية في مرحلة الستينات والسبعينات من القرن العشرين.
ولكن الزلزال العراقي، واستمرار المأساة الفلسطينية وسط تمادي العجز العربي على مختلف الصعد، حافز اساسي وواضح لقيامنا بدورنا اللبناني والعربي والانساني لا بل بواجبنا القومي والديني والاخلاقي في مواجهة الانهيار الكبير في بنيان مجتمعاتنا وبلادنا (...).
ان النخب الحاكمة في بلادنا العربية وقد همشت، وضربت، المجتمع الاهلي والمجتمع المدني وأفقدت الانسان العربي حريته وكرامته وحتى لقمة عيشه ومأواه وصولاً الى احتقار وجوده وانسانيته. هذه النخب الحاكمة، وقد استولت على مقدرات البلاد وتحكمت بالعباد، لن تخلي الطريق امام دواعي الاصلاح والتغيير والحرية والديموقراطية (...). ولكن هذه النخب هي في الآن نفسه أسيرة خيوط العنكبوت التي نسجتها لحماية نفسها والمتمثلة بالارتباطات والتوازنات الخارجية، ومن هنا مسارعتها الى اطاعة الاوامر الاميركية وتنفيذها.
وهنا مأزق رهيب تعاظم واشتد بعد سقوط نظام صدام حسين في العراق، وهو يُنذر بأشد المخاطر على مشروع الاصلاح والتغيير في سوريا كما في لبنان وبقية البلدان العربية طالما انه يرهن ارادة التغيير والتحرر والاصلاح لمتغيرات الظروف الخارجية ولتوترات العلاقات مع الغرب واميركا.
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كنت قد كتبت قبل 3 سنوات بالضبط، وإبان معمعة النداء الاول للمطارنة الموارنة وحملات التخوين والتكفير التي رافقته بانه ينبغي مصارحة سوريا حرصاً عليها اولاً وعلى جماعتها في لبنان ثانياً، قبل الحرص على لبنان وشعبه ومستقبله. فالمطلوب إقامة حوار سوري - لبناني حقيقي حول النهوض معاً في مواجهة التحديات (...). ومن اجل تطور ديموقراطي سليم وسلمي لتوازنات المجتمع الاهلي وللعلاقات بين المجتمع والدولة (في لبنان وسوريا) وللتكامل والتعاون بين البلدين، وصولاً الى مساهمتهما معاً في صوغ نظام اقليمي عربي جديد يقوم على سوق عربية مشتركة وعلى اتحاد عربي لدول ديموقراطية حرة مستقلة متطورة.
وما زلت اعتقد بأنه لا تغيير حقيقياً في لبنان دون حصول تغيير حقيقي في سوريا (وأقصد بالتغيير الاصلاح السلمي الديموقراطي لا الانقلاب او الثورة). وقد ازداد اقتناعي هذا وترسخ خصوصاً بعد الزلزال العراقي. فالسلطة السورية هي المسؤولة الاولى والمباشرة عن انتاج السلطة السياسية الحالية في لبنان، وهي سلطة تم تركيبها ببطء واناة وعبر محطات دراماتيكية أهمها، وأحدثها، الانقلاب على الطائف في انتخابات .1992 وبالتالي فان آليات التغيير الديموقراطي في لبنان معطلة او "مكربجة" بفعل اليد الضابطة السورية، ولكون التغيير في لبنان سيطيح رموز الوصاية السورية ومن خلال ذلك كل المنافع والامتيازات التي حصلت عليها الطبقة الجديدة في البلدين. وبالتالي فان الكلام على "سلطة بديلة" في لبنان (موقف لقاء قرنة شهوان) او على انتاج سلطة جديدة عبر قانون انتخابي جديد (موقف الرئيس الحسيني والجبهة الوطنية الجديدة) لا يستقيم ان لم يلامس اساس المسألة: الحوار مع سوريـا حـول إنجاز تغيير حقيقي في البلدين ولمصلحة البلدين (...).
فمن المعيب لسوريا وللبنان ان نطرح شعار الاصلاح والتغيير والشفافية ومحاربة الفساد تحت الضغط الاميركي او استجابة لطلبات اميركية محددة. ومن الخطر المراهنة على التدخل الاميركي لتعجيل عملية التغيير في لبنان وسوريا. كما انه من الخطأ لا بل من "الهبل" الاعتقاد بانه يمكن المراهنة على مأزق اميركي في العراق وعلى انشغال واشنطن بالوضعين العراقي والفلسطيني لكي نؤجل الاصلاح والتغيير. ان المعادلة المطروحة اليوم هي شديدة الوضوح: لا عودة الى الوراء (أي الى ما قبل الزلزال العراقي) وفي الوقت نفسه لا مراهنة على تغيير سريع. وفي ضوء هذه المعادلة الواضحة علينا تكييف الموقف الديموقراطي الداعي الى الاصلاح والتغيير السلمي في سوريا.
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ينبغي ان نرفض الكلام الذي يقول إنه لا توجد قوى سياسية او جماهيرية منظمة لتستفيد من الديموقراطية، وبالتالي فان الديموقراطية مستحيلة او غير ممكنة في البلاد العربية. لقد كان هذا الكلام أحد مبررات الاستعمار والانتداب في مطلع القرن العشرين. وهو استخدم من طرف الحكام لتبرير القمع والاستبداد تارة تحت اسم المستبد العادل، وطوراً تحت عنوان، او شعار "الدولة القهرية". وقد سمعت اخيراً هذا الكلام على لسان معلّق سياسي سوري كثير الظهور في الاعلام اللبناني. ان هؤلاء ينسون او يتناسون تاريخ الحركة السياسية العربية وتراثها في النصف الاول من القرن العشرين، حيث كانت مصر وسوريا والعراق زاخرة زاهرة بالليبرالية والديموقراطية والحرية قبل حلول ليل الانقلابات العسكرية الثورية. واليوم، ورغم نصف قرن من الاستبداد والقمع والتنكيل ومن ضرب المجتمع وتهميش القوى والحركات السياسية فان الديموقراطية هي الحل الوحيد وهي السلاح الوحيد (...).
والبلاد العربية، وسوريا في طليعتها، تفتخر بوجود نخب فكرية وثقافية وسياسية في الداخل والخارج. وبأن مجتمعاتها لم تستسلم ولم تسلم القياد لأنظمتها وحكامها بل هي قاومت ومانعت مما سمح لها بالصمود والاستمرار وبانتاج حركية سياسية شديدة التنوع، عميقة التجارب، غنية الخبرات، تستطيع في حال إطلاق الحرية والديموقراطية انتاج قيادات ونخب جديدة. ولنا في مثال رياض الترك وتياره في الحزب الشيوعي السوري- المكتب السياسي، وفي المثقفين الكبار امثال ميشال كيلو وعبد الرزاق عيد وغيرهما، كما في حركة "الاخوان المسلمين" التي طرحت منذ سنوات شعار، ومطلب، المصالحة الوطنية والتعددية والديموقراطية، لنا فيها الامثلة الواضحة على ان للديموقراطية قاعدة حقيقية في سوريا.
هذا ناهيك عن ان الاصلاح السلمي الديموقراطي المنشود لن يستثني التيارات الاخرى المشاركة في الحكم، ومنها حزب البعث نفسه. فالمطلوب ان يبادر بعض من هم في السلطة الى اعادة تأهيل أنفسهم وتأهيل قواهم للمشاركة في المصالحة الوطنية وفي التغيير الحقيقي (...).
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ان عناوين الاصلاح في سوريا تتركز على ضرب الفساد المستشري في السلطة على المستويات الاقتصادية والسياسية والادارية. وان نجاح ذلك مرهون بفك الاشتباك مع لبنان. ذلك ان ضرب الفساد والمفسدين في السلطة يعني ضرب مصدر الفساد والافساد وهو الطبقة الطفيلية اللبنانية - السورية، الامنية - العسكرية - المالية، المستفيدة من الوجود السوري في لبنان. ومن هنا فان شعار انجاز تسوية داخلية لبنانية - لبنانية، وسورية - سورية، ثم تسوية لبنانية - سورية، هو الشعار الصحيح اليوم ومعناه بالتحديد انجاز مصالحة وطنية حقيقية، وعفو عام حقيقي، واطلاق المعتقلين وللحريات في البلدين، الامر الذي يسمح بانتاج دولة ديموقراطية فاعلة تستند الى قوى مجتمعها، وتتصالح مع المجتمع اولاً. ومن ثم ايجاد تسوية تاريخية للعلاقات اللبنانية - السورية تسمح بان نتقدم ونتطور معاً (...).
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صحيح القول بأن الظروف في لبنان مختلفة عن ظروف سوريا. فسوريا لم تعرف نظام التوافق الديموقراطي بين الطوائف ولا الحريات الناتجة عنه. ولكن الصحيح ايضاً ان لبنان عرف حرباً أهلية دمرت مجتمعه طوال ربع قرن. وان العلاقات بين لبنان وسوريا هي اكثر من ممتازة او مميزة. انها علاقات تقوم على استراتيجيا ورؤية ومصالح مشتركة وعلى ثوابت الهوية والانتماء والتاريخ والجغرافيا. وهذه العلاقات ليست خطاباً او شعاراً يستخدمه البعض لمصلحة مشروع سلطوي دفع ثمنه المجتمع الاهلي في لبنان وسوريا، والعلاقات الطبيعية بين لبنان وسوريا.
ان الخطاب القومجي القائم على التملق لسوريا لا ينتج او يولد سوى وعي وممارسة سياسية - امنية مفارقة للمجتمع، متغلبة عليه، قاهرة له، مفككة لمرجعياته الرمزية، تضرب ذاكرته وتهمش قواه وتصادر حقوقه. لذا فان المطلوب سورياً ولبنانياً هو توليد نص او خطاب سياسي - ثقافي - اجتماعي - اقتصادي متصالح مع المجتمع الاهلي، مع ذاكرته ومرجعياته الرمزية اولاً، ومفتوح على آفاق التطور الديموقراطي في لبنان وسوريا ثانياً، وعلى تشكيل نظام اقليمي عربي جديد ثالثاً (...). وهنا بالذات تكمن مسؤولية اللبنانيين والسوريين في الحوار الجاد الصريح حول آفاق المستقبل ومن اجل انتاج تسوية ذات أبعاد ثلاثة:
1- تسوية داخلية في لبنان وسوريا على قاعدة المصالحة الوطنية والعفو والمساواة والعدالة والحرية والديموقراطية.
2- تسوية تاريخية في العلاقات اللبنانية - السورية على قاعدة الاعتماد المتبادل والتعاون والاخوة والتنسيق، وضمن اطر وهياكل تنظيمية مشتركة واضحة وشفافة.
3- تسوية خارجية حول دورنا في الوطن العربي وفي العالم تنطلق من الالتزام بالشرعية الدولية وبالعلاقات مع الدول الصديقة (...) تحت عنوان: نحو نظام عالمي جديد اكثر عدلاً وتوازناً.
هذه هي معركتنا نحن والاخوة السوريون وفي هذا فليتنافس المتنافسون.
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سعود المولى
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ينتظر اللبنانيون، بكثير من الريبة والترقب، مثلهم في ذلك مثل إخوانهم السوريين، أية اشارة ولو بسيطة تسمح لهم بفهم حقيقة الاصلاح والتغيير الذي كثر الحديث عنه اخيراً. ذلك ان الامر يعنيهم جداً وهم يعرفون من خبرتهم المديدة في هذا المجال ان الكلام شيء والواقع شيء آخر. ومن هنا فانهم يحاولون جاهدين التعرّف ولو من بعد على ملامح المشروع الاصلاحي العتيد في سوريا علهم يتأكدون او يعرفون حقيقته ومآله. وخبرتهم وتجاربهم في هذا الميدان تملي عليهم موقف التريث والترقب وعدم استعجال إطلاق الاحكام. فالامر يتعلق بسوريا وهم ما تعودوا، ولا تجرأوا، ومنذ سنين طويلة، على مجرد الاشارة اليها تصريحاً او تلميحاً في حواراتهم او مداولاتهم او حتى توقعاتهم السياسية. فكيف اذا كان المطروح شعارات إصلاح وتغيير قد يفهم منها البعض انقلاباً او ثورة او تمرداً على الواقع القائم؟ وكيف اذا كان الحديث عن الاصلاح والتغيير يتم في ظروف اشتداد الضغوط الاميركية على سوريا؟ (...).
الحديث اذن عن الاصلاح ومشروعه في سوريا هو حديث خطير (وفي لبنان بالذات). ومن هنا استنكافنا جميعاً عن طرح هذا الملف ضاربين عرض الحائط بتاريخنا وتراثنا في ممارسة النقد السياسي والنقد الذاتي والمراجعات التي زخرت بها أدبياتنا الحزبية والنضالية في مرحلة الستينات والسبعينات من القرن العشرين.
ولكن الزلزال العراقي، واستمرار المأساة الفلسطينية وسط تمادي العجز العربي على مختلف الصعد، حافز اساسي وواضح لقيامنا بدورنا اللبناني والعربي والانساني لا بل بواجبنا القومي والديني والاخلاقي في مواجهة الانهيار الكبير في بنيان مجتمعاتنا وبلادنا (...).
ان النخب الحاكمة في بلادنا العربية وقد همشت، وضربت، المجتمع الاهلي والمجتمع المدني وأفقدت الانسان العربي حريته وكرامته وحتى لقمة عيشه ومأواه وصولاً الى احتقار وجوده وانسانيته. هذه النخب الحاكمة، وقد استولت على مقدرات البلاد وتحكمت بالعباد، لن تخلي الطريق امام دواعي الاصلاح والتغيير والحرية والديموقراطية (...). ولكن هذه النخب هي في الآن نفسه أسيرة خيوط العنكبوت التي نسجتها لحماية نفسها والمتمثلة بالارتباطات والتوازنات الخارجية، ومن هنا مسارعتها الى اطاعة الاوامر الاميركية وتنفيذها.
وهنا مأزق رهيب تعاظم واشتد بعد سقوط نظام صدام حسين في العراق، وهو يُنذر بأشد المخاطر على مشروع الاصلاح والتغيير في سوريا كما في لبنان وبقية البلدان العربية طالما انه يرهن ارادة التغيير والتحرر والاصلاح لمتغيرات الظروف الخارجية ولتوترات العلاقات مع الغرب واميركا.
• 2 -
كنت قد كتبت قبل 3 سنوات بالضبط، وإبان معمعة النداء الاول للمطارنة الموارنة وحملات التخوين والتكفير التي رافقته بانه ينبغي مصارحة سوريا حرصاً عليها اولاً وعلى جماعتها في لبنان ثانياً، قبل الحرص على لبنان وشعبه ومستقبله. فالمطلوب إقامة حوار سوري - لبناني حقيقي حول النهوض معاً في مواجهة التحديات (...). ومن اجل تطور ديموقراطي سليم وسلمي لتوازنات المجتمع الاهلي وللعلاقات بين المجتمع والدولة (في لبنان وسوريا) وللتكامل والتعاون بين البلدين، وصولاً الى مساهمتهما معاً في صوغ نظام اقليمي عربي جديد يقوم على سوق عربية مشتركة وعلى اتحاد عربي لدول ديموقراطية حرة مستقلة متطورة.
وما زلت اعتقد بأنه لا تغيير حقيقياً في لبنان دون حصول تغيير حقيقي في سوريا (وأقصد بالتغيير الاصلاح السلمي الديموقراطي لا الانقلاب او الثورة). وقد ازداد اقتناعي هذا وترسخ خصوصاً بعد الزلزال العراقي. فالسلطة السورية هي المسؤولة الاولى والمباشرة عن انتاج السلطة السياسية الحالية في لبنان، وهي سلطة تم تركيبها ببطء واناة وعبر محطات دراماتيكية أهمها، وأحدثها، الانقلاب على الطائف في انتخابات .1992 وبالتالي فان آليات التغيير الديموقراطي في لبنان معطلة او "مكربجة" بفعل اليد الضابطة السورية، ولكون التغيير في لبنان سيطيح رموز الوصاية السورية ومن خلال ذلك كل المنافع والامتيازات التي حصلت عليها الطبقة الجديدة في البلدين. وبالتالي فان الكلام على "سلطة بديلة" في لبنان (موقف لقاء قرنة شهوان) او على انتاج سلطة جديدة عبر قانون انتخابي جديد (موقف الرئيس الحسيني والجبهة الوطنية الجديدة) لا يستقيم ان لم يلامس اساس المسألة: الحوار مع سوريـا حـول إنجاز تغيير حقيقي في البلدين ولمصلحة البلدين (...).
فمن المعيب لسوريا وللبنان ان نطرح شعار الاصلاح والتغيير والشفافية ومحاربة الفساد تحت الضغط الاميركي او استجابة لطلبات اميركية محددة. ومن الخطر المراهنة على التدخل الاميركي لتعجيل عملية التغيير في لبنان وسوريا. كما انه من الخطأ لا بل من "الهبل" الاعتقاد بانه يمكن المراهنة على مأزق اميركي في العراق وعلى انشغال واشنطن بالوضعين العراقي والفلسطيني لكي نؤجل الاصلاح والتغيير. ان المعادلة المطروحة اليوم هي شديدة الوضوح: لا عودة الى الوراء (أي الى ما قبل الزلزال العراقي) وفي الوقت نفسه لا مراهنة على تغيير سريع. وفي ضوء هذه المعادلة الواضحة علينا تكييف الموقف الديموقراطي الداعي الى الاصلاح والتغيير السلمي في سوريا.
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ينبغي ان نرفض الكلام الذي يقول إنه لا توجد قوى سياسية او جماهيرية منظمة لتستفيد من الديموقراطية، وبالتالي فان الديموقراطية مستحيلة او غير ممكنة في البلاد العربية. لقد كان هذا الكلام أحد مبررات الاستعمار والانتداب في مطلع القرن العشرين. وهو استخدم من طرف الحكام لتبرير القمع والاستبداد تارة تحت اسم المستبد العادل، وطوراً تحت عنوان، او شعار "الدولة القهرية". وقد سمعت اخيراً هذا الكلام على لسان معلّق سياسي سوري كثير الظهور في الاعلام اللبناني. ان هؤلاء ينسون او يتناسون تاريخ الحركة السياسية العربية وتراثها في النصف الاول من القرن العشرين، حيث كانت مصر وسوريا والعراق زاخرة زاهرة بالليبرالية والديموقراطية والحرية قبل حلول ليل الانقلابات العسكرية الثورية. واليوم، ورغم نصف قرن من الاستبداد والقمع والتنكيل ومن ضرب المجتمع وتهميش القوى والحركات السياسية فان الديموقراطية هي الحل الوحيد وهي السلاح الوحيد (...).
والبلاد العربية، وسوريا في طليعتها، تفتخر بوجود نخب فكرية وثقافية وسياسية في الداخل والخارج. وبأن مجتمعاتها لم تستسلم ولم تسلم القياد لأنظمتها وحكامها بل هي قاومت ومانعت مما سمح لها بالصمود والاستمرار وبانتاج حركية سياسية شديدة التنوع، عميقة التجارب، غنية الخبرات، تستطيع في حال إطلاق الحرية والديموقراطية انتاج قيادات ونخب جديدة. ولنا في مثال رياض الترك وتياره في الحزب الشيوعي السوري- المكتب السياسي، وفي المثقفين الكبار امثال ميشال كيلو وعبد الرزاق عيد وغيرهما، كما في حركة "الاخوان المسلمين" التي طرحت منذ سنوات شعار، ومطلب، المصالحة الوطنية والتعددية والديموقراطية، لنا فيها الامثلة الواضحة على ان للديموقراطية قاعدة حقيقية في سوريا.
هذا ناهيك عن ان الاصلاح السلمي الديموقراطي المنشود لن يستثني التيارات الاخرى المشاركة في الحكم، ومنها حزب البعث نفسه. فالمطلوب ان يبادر بعض من هم في السلطة الى اعادة تأهيل أنفسهم وتأهيل قواهم للمشاركة في المصالحة الوطنية وفي التغيير الحقيقي (...).
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ان عناوين الاصلاح في سوريا تتركز على ضرب الفساد المستشري في السلطة على المستويات الاقتصادية والسياسية والادارية. وان نجاح ذلك مرهون بفك الاشتباك مع لبنان. ذلك ان ضرب الفساد والمفسدين في السلطة يعني ضرب مصدر الفساد والافساد وهو الطبقة الطفيلية اللبنانية - السورية، الامنية - العسكرية - المالية، المستفيدة من الوجود السوري في لبنان. ومن هنا فان شعار انجاز تسوية داخلية لبنانية - لبنانية، وسورية - سورية، ثم تسوية لبنانية - سورية، هو الشعار الصحيح اليوم ومعناه بالتحديد انجاز مصالحة وطنية حقيقية، وعفو عام حقيقي، واطلاق المعتقلين وللحريات في البلدين، الامر الذي يسمح بانتاج دولة ديموقراطية فاعلة تستند الى قوى مجتمعها، وتتصالح مع المجتمع اولاً. ومن ثم ايجاد تسوية تاريخية للعلاقات اللبنانية - السورية تسمح بان نتقدم ونتطور معاً (...).
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صحيح القول بأن الظروف في لبنان مختلفة عن ظروف سوريا. فسوريا لم تعرف نظام التوافق الديموقراطي بين الطوائف ولا الحريات الناتجة عنه. ولكن الصحيح ايضاً ان لبنان عرف حرباً أهلية دمرت مجتمعه طوال ربع قرن. وان العلاقات بين لبنان وسوريا هي اكثر من ممتازة او مميزة. انها علاقات تقوم على استراتيجيا ورؤية ومصالح مشتركة وعلى ثوابت الهوية والانتماء والتاريخ والجغرافيا. وهذه العلاقات ليست خطاباً او شعاراً يستخدمه البعض لمصلحة مشروع سلطوي دفع ثمنه المجتمع الاهلي في لبنان وسوريا، والعلاقات الطبيعية بين لبنان وسوريا.
ان الخطاب القومجي القائم على التملق لسوريا لا ينتج او يولد سوى وعي وممارسة سياسية - امنية مفارقة للمجتمع، متغلبة عليه، قاهرة له، مفككة لمرجعياته الرمزية، تضرب ذاكرته وتهمش قواه وتصادر حقوقه. لذا فان المطلوب سورياً ولبنانياً هو توليد نص او خطاب سياسي - ثقافي - اجتماعي - اقتصادي متصالح مع المجتمع الاهلي، مع ذاكرته ومرجعياته الرمزية اولاً، ومفتوح على آفاق التطور الديموقراطي في لبنان وسوريا ثانياً، وعلى تشكيل نظام اقليمي عربي جديد ثالثاً (...). وهنا بالذات تكمن مسؤولية اللبنانيين والسوريين في الحوار الجاد الصريح حول آفاق المستقبل ومن اجل انتاج تسوية ذات أبعاد ثلاثة:
1- تسوية داخلية في لبنان وسوريا على قاعدة المصالحة الوطنية والعفو والمساواة والعدالة والحرية والديموقراطية.
2- تسوية تاريخية في العلاقات اللبنانية - السورية على قاعدة الاعتماد المتبادل والتعاون والاخوة والتنسيق، وضمن اطر وهياكل تنظيمية مشتركة واضحة وشفافة.
3- تسوية خارجية حول دورنا في الوطن العربي وفي العالم تنطلق من الالتزام بالشرعية الدولية وبالعلاقات مع الدول الصديقة (...) تحت عنوان: نحو نظام عالمي جديد اكثر عدلاً وتوازناً.
هذه هي معركتنا نحن والاخوة السوريون وفي هذا فليتنافس المتنافسون.
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